The rate at which water must pass through an intermittent filter is, on account of the intervals of rest, considerably greater than that required to give a corresponding total yield from a continuous filter, and its straining effect is reduced to an extent comparable to this increase in rate; and if other conditions did not come in, the bacterial efficiency of an intermittent filter would remain below that of a continuous one.
As a matter of fact the bacterial efficiency has usually been found to be less with intermittent filters at the Lawrence Experiment Station, when they have been run at rates such as are commonly used for continuous filters in Europe, say from one and one half to two million gallons and upwards per acre daily. With lower rates, and especially with rather fine materials, the bacterial efficiency is much greater; but it may be doubted whether it would ever be greater than that of a continuous filter with the same filtering material and the same total yield per acre. The number of bacteria coming from the underdrains is apparently generally less, and with very high summer temperatures much less, than in continuous filters, and this often gives an apparent bacterial superiority to the intermittent filters.
The effluents from intermittent often contain less slightly organic matter than those from continuous filters; but, on the other hand, hardly any water proposed for a public water-supply has organic matter enough to be of any sanitary significance whatever, apart from the living bodies which often accompany it; and if the latter are removed by straining or otherwise, we can safely disregard the organic matters. In addition, the water filtered will in a great majority of cases have enough air dissolved in itself to produce whatever oxidation there is time for in the few hours required for it to pass the filter, and it is only at very low rates of filtration that intermittent filters produce effluents of greater chemical purity than by the ordinary process. The yellow-brown coloring matter present in so many waters appears to be quite incapable of rapid nitrification; and where it is to some extent removed by filtration, the action is dependent upon other and but imperfectly understood causes which seem to act equally in continuous and intermittent filters.
The peculiarities of construction involved by this method of filtration will be best illustrated by a discussion of the Lawrence city filter designed by Hiram F. Mills, C.E., which is the only filter in existence upon this plan.[30]
THE LAWRENCE FILTER.
The filter consists of a single bed 21⁄2 acres in area, the bottom of which is 7 feet below low water in the river, and filled with gravel and sand to an average depth of 41⁄2 feet. The filter is all in a single bed instead of being divided into the three or four sections which would probably have been used for a continuous filter of this size. The water-tight bottom also was dispensed with, and the gravel was prevented from sinking into the silt by thin intermediate layers of graded materials. The saving in cost was considerable; but, on the other hand, a considerable quantity of ground-water comes up through the bottom and increases the hardness of the water from 1.5 to 2.6 parts of calcium carbonate in 100,000; and while the water when compared with many other waters is still extremely soft, the addition cannot be regarded as desirable. The ground-water also contains iron, which increases the color of the water above what it would otherwise be.
The underdrains have a frictional resistance ten times as great as would be desirable for a continuous filter, the idea being to check extreme rates of filtration in case of unequal flooding, and also to limit the quantity of water which could be gotten through the filter to that corresponding to a moderate rate of filtration.
The sand, instead of being all of the same-sized grain, is of two grades, with effective sizes respectively 0.25 and 0.30 mm., the coarser sand being placed farthest away from the underdrains, where its greater distance is intended to balance its reduced frictional resistance and make all parts filter at an equal rate.
The surface instead of being level is waved, that is, there are ridges thirty feet apart, sloping evenly to the valleys one foot deep half way between them, to allow water to be brought on rapidly without disturbing the sand surface. For the same reason, as well as to secure equality of distribution, a system of concrete carriers for the raw water goes to all parts of the filter, reducing the effective filtering area by 4 or 5 per cent. The filter is scraped as necessary in sections, the work being performed when the filter is having its daily rest and aeration. Owing to the difference in frictional resistance before and after scraping, and to the fact that it is impossible to scrape the entire area in one day, considerable variations in the rate of filtration in different parts of the filter must occur. The heavy frictional resistance of the underdrains when more than the proper quantity of water passes them tends to correct this tendency especially for the more remote parts of the filter, but perhaps at the expense of those near to the main drain.
The filter is not covered as the suggestions in Chapter II would require, but this is hardly on account of its being an intermittent filter.