A transformer is used in some cases to raise the voltage and compensate for the loss in a transmission line. For this purpose the secondary of a transformer giving the number of volts by which the line pressure is to be increased is connected in series with the line. The primary winding of this transformer may be supplied from the line boosted or from another source.

Transformers ranging in capacity from 100 to 1,000 kilowatts each, such as are commonly used for transmission work, have efficiencies of 96 to 98 per cent at full loads, when of first-class construction. Efficiency increases slowly with transformer capacity within the limits named, and 98 per cent can be fairly expected in only the larger sizes. In any given transformer the efficiency may be expected to fall a little, say one or two per cent, between full load and half load, and another one per cent between half load and quarter load. These figures for efficiencies at partial loads vary somewhat with the design and make of transformers. In general, it may be said that step-up or step-down transformers will cost approximately $7.50 per kilowatt capacity, or about one-half of the like cost of low-voltage dynamos. If dynamos of voltage sufficiently high for the transmission line can be had at a figure below the combined cost of low-volt dynamos and raising transformers, it will usually pay to avoid the latter and develop the line voltage in the armature coils. This plan avoids the loss in one set of transformers.

Transformers in Transmission Systems.

Transmission System.Transformers
at
Power-stations.		Transformers
at
Sub-stations.		Generators
at
Power-stations.
No.Kw.
Each.		No.Kw.
Each.		No.Kw.
Each.
Cañon Ferry to Butte12325[[A]][[A]]......
6950695010750
Apple River to St. Paul......6300......
650042004750
White River to Dales340033752500
Farmington River to Hartford4300......2600
Ogden to Salt Lake[[B]]9250......5750
Colgate to Oakland...700......- 31125
42250
Presumpscot River to Portland......- 6200......
31504500
Four water-powers to Manchester......21200- 1180
3300
1450
4650
11200
[A] Other transformers at Helena sub-stations.
[B] Part of energy distributed directly from generators.

CHAPTER XI.
SWITCHES, FUSES, AND CIRCUIT-BREAKERS.

Electrical transmission has worked a revolution in the art of switching. As long as the distances to be covered by distribution lines required pressures of only a few hundred volts, the switch contacts for generators and feeders could well be exposed in a row on the surface of vertical marble slabs and separated from each other by distances of only a few inches. These switches were capable of manual operation even at times of heavy overload without danger of personal injury to the operator or of destructive arcing between the parts of a single switch or from one switch to another near-by. On the back of these marble slabs one or more sets of bare bus-bars could be located without much probability that an accidental contact between them would start an arc capable of destroying the entire switchboard structure and shutting down the station.

The rise of electric pressures to thousands and tens of thousands of volts in distribution and transmission systems has vastly increased the difficulty of safe and effective control with open-air switches. The higher the voltage of the circuit to be operated under load the greater must be the distance between the contact parts of each switch and also between adjacent switches. Such switches must also be farther removed from the operators as the voltages of their circuits go up, as a person cannot safely stand very close to an electric arc of several feet or even yards in length. In the West, where long transmissions are most common, long break-stick switches have been much used with high voltages. These switches depend on the length of the break to open the circuit and on the length of the stick that moves the switch-jaw or plug to insure the safety of the operator. Where switches of this sort are used it is highly important to have ample distances between the contact points of each switch and also between the several switches. On circuits of not more than 10,000 volts an arc as much as a yard long will in some cases follow the opening switch blade and hold on for several seconds. On the 33,000-volt transmission line at Los Angeles a peculiar form of switch is used which makes a break between a pair of curved wire horns that are ten inches apart at their nearest points. When the contact between these horns is broken the arc travels up between portions of the horns that curve apart and is thus finally ruptured. Besides the very large space required for open switches on circuits of 5,000 to 10,000 volts or more, there is a further objection that the arcs developed by opening such switches under heavy loads rapidly destroy the contact parts and produce large quantities of metallic vapor that is objectionable in a central station. In some experiments performed at Kalamazoo (A. I. E. E., vol. xviii., p. 407) with open-air switches the voltages ranged from 25,000 to 40,000. The loads on circuits broken by the switches were highly inductive and mounted from 1,200 to 1,300 kilovolt-amperes. At 25,000 volts the arc produced by the open-air switch held on for several seconds. At 40,000 volts the arc following the opening of this switch was over thirty feet long, and being out of doors near the pole line the arc struck the line wires and short-circuited the system. It has been shown that the oscillations of voltage occurring when a circuit under heavy load is opened by an open-air switch may be very dangerous to insulation (A. I. E. E., vol. xviii., p. 383). In the Kalamazoo test the oscillations of this sort were reported to have reached two or three times the normal voltage of the system when the open-air switch was used.