A patent was obtained, in December, 1833, by John Baptiste Constantine Torassa, and others, for making white lead by agitating the granulated metal, or shot, in trays or barrels, along with water, and exposing the mixture of lead-dust and water to the air, to be oxidized and carbonated. It is said that upwards of 100,000l. have been expended at Chelsea, by a joint stock company, in a factory constructed for executing the preceding most operose and defective process; which has been, many years ago, tried without success in Germany. I am convinced that the whole of these recent projects for preparing white lead, are inferior in economy, and quality of produce, to the old Dutch process, which may be so arranged as to convert sheets of blue lead thoroughly into the best white lead, within the space of 12 days, at less expense of labour than by any other plan.
White lead, as obtained by precipitation from the acetate, subacetate, and subnitrate, is a true carbonate of the metal, consisting of one prime equivalent of lead 104, one of oxygen 8, and one of carbonic acid 22; whose sum is 134, the atomic weight of the compound; or, of lead, 77·6; oxygen, 6; carbonic acid, 16·4; in 100 parts. It has been supposed, by some authors, that the denser and better-covering white lead of Krems and Holland is a kind of subcarbonate, containing only 9 per cent. of carbonic acid; but this view of the subject does not accord with my researches.
WICK (Mèche, Fr.; Docht, Germ.); is the spongy cord, usually made of soft spun cotton threads, which by capillary action, draws up the oil in lamps, or the melted tallow or wax in candles, in small successive portions, to be burned. In common wax and tallow candles, the wick is formed of parallel threads; in the stearine candles, the wick is plaited upon the braiding machine, moistened with a very dilute sulphuric acid, and dried, whereby as it burns, it falls to one side and consumes without requiring to be snuffed; in the patent candles of Mr. Palmer, one-tenth of the wick is first imbued with subnitrate of bismuth ground up with oil, the whole is then bound round in the manner called gimping; and of this wick, twice the length of the intended candle is twisted double round a rod, like the caduceus of Mercury. This rod with its coil being inserted in the axis of the candle mould, is to be enclosed by pouring in the melted tallow; and when the tallow is set, the rod is to be drawn out at top, leaving the wick in the candle. As this candle is burned, the ends of the double wick stand out sideways beyond the flame; and the bismuth attached to the cotton being acted on by the oxygen of the atmosphere, causes the wick to be completely consumed, and, therefore, saves the trouble of snuffing it.
WINCING-MACHINE, is the English name of the dyer’s reel, which he suspends horizontally, by the ends of its iron axis in bearings, over the edge of his vat, so that the line of the axis, being placed over the middle partition in the copper, will permit the piece of cloth which is wound upon the reel, to descend alternately into either compartment of the bath, according as it is turned by hand to the right or the left. For an excellent self-acting or mechanical [wince], see [Dyeing].
WINE, is the fermented juice of the grape. In the more southern states of Europe, the grapes, being more saccharine, afford a more abundant production of alcohol, and stronger wines, as exemplified in the best port, sherry, and madeira. The influence of solar heat upon the vines may, however, be mitigated by growing them to moderate heights on level ground, and by training them in festoons under the shelter of trees. In the more temperate climates, such as the district of Burgundy, the finer flavoured wines are produced; and there the vines are usually grown upon hilly slopes fronting the south, with more or less of an easterly or westerly direction, as on the Côte d’Or, at a distance from marshes, forests, and rivers, whose vapours might deteriorate the air. The plains of this district, even when possessing a similar or analogous soil, do not produce wines of so agreeable a flavour. The influence of temperature becomes very manifest in countries further north, where, in consequence of a few degrees of thermometric depression, the production of generous agreeable wine becomes impossible.
The land most favourable to the vine is light, easily permeable to water, but somewhat retentive by its composition; with a sandy subsoil, to allow the excess of moisture to drain readily off. Calcareous soils produce the highly esteemed wines of the Côte d’Or; a granitic debris forms the foundation of the lands where the Hermitage wines are grown; siliceous soil interspersed with flints furnishes the celebrated wines of Château-Neuf, Ferté, and La Gaude; schistose districts afford also good wine, as that called la Malgue. Thus we see that lands differing in chemical composition, but possessed of the proper physical qualities, may produce most agreeable wines; and so also may lands of like chemical and physical constitution produce various kinds of wine, according to their varied exposure. As a striking example of these effects, we may adduce the slopes of the hills which grow the wines of Montrachet. The insulated part towards the top furnishes the wine called Chevalier Montrachet, which is less esteemed, and sells at a much lower price, than the delicious wine grown on the middle height, called true Montrachet. Beneath this district, and in the surrounding plains, the vines afford a far inferior article, called bastard Montrachet. The opposite side of the hills produces very indifferent wine. Similar differences, in a greater or less degree, are observable relatively to the districts which grow the Pomard, Volnay, Beaune, Nuits, Vougeot, Chambertin, Romanée, &c. Every where it is found, that the reverse side of the hill, the summit, and the plain, although generally consisting of like soil, afford inferior wine to the middle southern slopes.
Amelioration of the soil.—When the vine lands are too light or too dense, they may be modified, within certain limits, by introducing into them either argillaceous or siliceous matter. Marl is excellent for almost all grounds which are not previously too calcareous, being alike useful to open dense soils, and to render porous ones more retentive.
Manure.—For the vine, as well as all cultivated plants, a manure supplying azotized or animal nutriment may be used with great advantage, provided care be taken to ripen it by previous fermentation, so that it may not, by absorption in too crude a state, impart any disagreeable odour to the grape; as sometimes happens to the vines grown in the vicinity of great towns, like Paris, and near Argenteuil. There is a compost used in France, called animalized black, of which from 1⁄3 to 1⁄2 of a litre (old English quart) serves sufficiently to fertilize the root of one vine, when applied every year, or two years. An excess of manure, in rainy seasons especially, has the effect of rendering the grapes large and insipid.
The ground is tilled at the same time as the manure is applied, towards the month of March; the plants are then dressed, and the props are inserted. The weakness of the plants renders this practice useful; but in some southern districts, the stem of the vine, when supported at a proper height, acquires after a while sufficient size and strength to stand alone. The ends of the props or poles are either dipped in tar, or charred, to prevent their rotting. The bottom of the stem must be covered over with soil, after the spring rains have washed it down. The principal husbandry of the vineyard consists in digging or ploughing to destroy the weeds, and to expose the soil to the influence of the air, during the months of May, June, and occasionally in August.
The vintage, in the temperate provinces, generally takes place about the end of September; and it is always deteriorated whenever the fruit is not ripe enough before the 15th or 20th of October; for, in this case, not only is the must more acid, and less saccharine, but the atmospherical temperature is apt to fall so low during the nights, as to obstruct more or less its fermentation into wine. The grapes should be plucked in dry weather, at the interval of a few days after they are ripe; being usually gathered in baskets, and transported to the vats in dorsels, sufficiently tight to prevent the juice from running out. Whenever a layer about 14 or 15 inches thick has been spread on the bottom of the vat, the treading operation begins, which is usually repeated after macerating the grapes for some time, when an incipient fermentation has softened the texture of the skin and the interior cells. When the whole bruised grapes are collected in the vat, the juice, by means of a slight fermentation, reacts, through the acidity thus generated, upon the colouring-matter of the husks, and also upon the tannin contained in the stones and the fruit-stalks. The process of fermentation is suffered to proceed without any other precaution, except forcing down from time to time the pellicles and pedicles floated up by the carbonic acid to the top; but it would be less apt to become acetous, were the mouths of the vats covered. With this view, M. Sebille Auger introduced with success his elastic bung in the manufacture of wine in the department of the Maine-et-Loire.