The nitrate of commerce is a white cheese-like substance from which the highest grade gunpowder is made; it is also used in chemical works to produce nitric and sulphuric acid, etc., but the bulk of it is employed as a fertilizer, doubling or tripling the harvest. A mineral substance, it is distinguished from guano, the excrement of birds. As to its origin there are various theories, but none is generally accepted. A byproduct, a yellow liquor, which in its preparation is drawn off from the nitrate into a crucible, is then chemically treated, poured into smaller pans, and on cooling leaves on the dish a blue crystal, the iodine of commerce, which costs as much per ounce as saltpetre per 100 lbs. The casks in which it is placed are covered with green hides which shrink and keep out the moisture. Worth $700 to $800 a cask, the iodine is shipped in the treasure vaults with bullion. About 40 per cent of the nitrate goes to Germany, 30 to the United States, 20 to France, the rest to Great Britain and Belgium.
Antofagasta. The next port, 200 miles below Iquique, at which express boats call, is Antofagasta, the terminus of the other railway from Bolivia, via Oruro. Here are sea-lions, diving birds, and a considerable town, but no sheltered harbor, in spite of which much commerce is carried on. This, with Iquique, as a poor port, almost rivals Mollendo. One writer says it is an ugly dun-colored place, another that it is the prettiest town since leaving Panama. It has an air of prosperity with good shops and business houses, a comfortable hotel, the Grand, A. P., 7 to 20 pesos, well furnished rooms, and real milk; another says the hotel is very bad. Much depends upon one’s disposition, point of view, what he expects, and where he has come from; and you may read exactly opposite opinions of many places and people, as happens even of cities in the United States.
Some steamers call at Caldera, 207 miles south of Antofagasta, with a sheltered harbor, and the oldest railway in South America connecting it with the town of Copiapó; the express boats call only at Coquimbo nearly 200 miles farther and 200 north of Valparaiso.
Coquimbo, at the end of the desert country, a busy port, shipping more copper than any other in South America, is situated at the foot and up the side of cliffs. The country around is very rich in fossils. At Herradura on Horseshoe Bay was found a petrified icthyosaurus 20 feet long, which visitors are taken to see; they are informed that it is 12,000 years old. Above in the mountains, at an altitude of 4000 feet, is a very sacred shrine, a Virgin of the Rosary, at a small village called Andacollo. During Christmas week pilgrims come by thousands from all parts of the country, even from Peru and Argentina, some walking hundreds of miles. Precious gifts and jewels valued at hundreds of thousands of dollars have been presented at various times.
One day’s sail from Coquimbo is Valparaiso.
Chile. The country of Chile is very peculiar; let me hasten to add, in nothing more serious than its shape. It is indeed excessively long and narrow, its great extent from north to south, 18° to 56° S. Lat., a distance of nearly 3000 miles, giving it a remarkable variety of productions and making it larger than any European country except Russia, although it is only from 100 to 300 miles wide. It is peculiar also that in spite of its scanty width, it is divided into three narrower strips, a low Coast Range, a longitudinal valley or plateau, and the high range of the Andes. With practically no rain in the north, it has a gradually increasing rainfall towards the south, till near the extremity there is rather too much. The northern part is the nitrate and mining section: the central and larger part is an agricultural zone of great possibilities, with good pasturage area; while farther south is an excellent forest region. There must obviously be a great variety of scenery as well as of climate, so that in one section or another all tastes may be gratified.
Chile was first invaded by Europeans soon after the founding of Lima in 1535. To Pizarro, Charles V, on hearing of the conquest, had given the country seventy leagues south of that previously bestowed; to Diego de Almagro the two hundred leagues beyond. In which section lay Cuzco was a matter of dispute. Pending its settlement Almagro decided to conquer the remainder of his province. That this region was richer in gold and silver than Peru was doubtless a tale of the Incas to distract the conquerors for their own advantage. However, with an army of Spaniards and some Indian captives, Almagro set out over the Bolivian plateau to investigate and take possession of the unknown country. On the barren heights they suffered hunger, cold, and mountain sickness, the difficulties of this terrible journey in many ways surpassing those of Hannibal and Napoleon in crossing the Alps. Failure and disappointment were the only results of the expedition, which was followed by the execution of the gallant leader after his return to Cuzco.
In spite of Almagro’s disastrous experience, a second expedition was inaugurated by Pedro de Valdivia, who proceeded along the desert shore, instead of over the plateau, and after arriving at Arica, there constructed vessels to pursue the journey. With no great loss, in December, 1540, he reached the valley of the Mapocho, and selecting a favorable site, on February 12, 1541, he proclaimed a new city: Santiago, for Spain’s patron saint, de la Nueva Estremadura, from his native province. On the Plaza de Armas was built a small chapel and a Cabildo or Municipal Council Chamber, as well.
Still unsatisfied Valdivia pursued his explorations southward, beyond the Bio-Bio River. In his absence the small garrison he had left behind barely escaped destruction, being saved only by the valor and boldness of the solitary woman in the party, Doña Ines de Suarez. The Araucanians, the most powerful tribe in this section, were of different caliber from the Quichuas, and long and fiercely they continued the struggle against the invaders, who treated them with barbarous severity. After the founding of Concepción, Imperial, Villa Rica, and Valdivia, and the settling of the conqueror himself at the town of Concepción, the Indians under the command of Lautaro, who as a servant of Valdivia had learned something of Spanish methods, attacked and defeated the Spaniards, capturing Valdivia and putting him to death with tortures. After long-continued warfare a truce was established, with the Bio-Bio River as the boundary line, but for two hundred and fifty years the contest went on for the subjugation of the natives. At last, when the Chilians rose against Spain, the Araucanians lent assistance, and friendliness was established. As in other lands, however, civilization of a sort proved too much for the Indians and few of pure blood remain.
On the 16th of June, 1810, the movement for independence began with the abdication of the Governor, Carrasco, on account of difficulty between himself and the Real Audiencia. September 18, 1810, the Cabildo or City Council in open session elected a Junta to govern until a National Congress should be convoked, ostensibly for the purpose of holding the dominion for King Ferdinand, deposed by Napoleon. The people regarding this as the birth of their independence were filled with joy. An army subsequently sent from Spain landed at Concepción, marched northward recruiting royalists, and after several engagements finally put to rout the patriots, who were commanded by Bernardo O’Higgins assisted by Colonel Juan Mackenna. October 16, 1814, General Osorio with the Spanish army entered Santiago and there maintained Spanish rule for three years longer. General O’Higgins meanwhile fled to Mendoza in Argentina to join the army which was being organized in that city by General San Martin for the expulsion of the Spanish power from the entire continent. Three years were required for this work. In January, 1817, the invasion of Chile from Argentina was begun by a well-drilled army of 5000 men, 1600 horses, and many pack mules. One division came by the Uspallata Pass, along the coach route across the Cordilleras, and the one followed by Almagro almost three centuries earlier. A second division under San Martin came by the lower Los Patos Pass. The two divisions, having united on February 12, gained a complete victory over the royalists in the famous battle of Chacabuco, and February 14 entered Santiago. The enthusiastic and grateful Chilians now offered to San Martin the governorship of the country. This unselfish patriot declining the honor, an assembly, February 17, appointed General O’Higgins Dictator, thus concluding the so-called Reconquista or Reconquest of Chile. However, troubles were not over. The Viceroy of Peru sent General Osorio again to Chile. Landing at Talcahuano in the south he was able to advance with his army, after defeating O’Higgins, until he approached Santiago; but on the plain of Maipo, April 5, 1818, San Martin again gained a decisive victory. Meanwhile on the anniversary of the battle of Chacabuco the Act of Independence was read in the Plaza of Santiago, and the oath was taken by the leaders. The United States was the first nation to recognize the Republic. A navy was soon formed and with the aid of Admiral Lord Cochrane, a squadron of eight warships and sixteen transports in 1820 carried north the army of San Martin for the conquest of Peru.