PRODUCTIVE POWER OF THE THREE OASIS COUNTRIES OF TURKESTAN.
In arguing about the Russian conquest of Central Asia, we are wont to say that the Court of St. Petersburg, in those far-reaching schemes which she pursues towards the Hindu-Khush with so much toil, at so heavy a cost, seeks some richer recompense than is to be found on the shores of the Yaxartes and the Oxus. Well; it is true that Russia's policy does not confine itself to the possession of the plains of Bokhara, Khokand, and Khiva. But in the meantime let us not undervalue the immediate gain of these conquests. It is right that we should learn the comparative worth of the three Khanats, the nature and extent of their produce, both as it is, and as with proper management it might become.
The very name of "oasis countries" contributes towards creating an impression, that the inhabited part of Turkestan must be unimportant as regards productive power; add to this the poverty and the extremely primitive and simple mode of life of its inhabitants, and it is not surprising that the great distance and the consequent want of knowledge should have begotten and spread erroneous notions. The natives themselves, as well as oriental travellers and geographers, such as Idrisi, Ibni Haukal, Ebulfeda, and the learned Prince Baber, fall into the opposite extreme, by representing Turkestan as the richest country on the face of the globe, India alone excepted. This opinion prevailed in former times,[21] not only throughout Western Asia, but even very lately I have met with it in several localities, and never felt more astonished than when I heard the egotistic Persian eloquently praising the wealth of Turkestan, a country he looks upon with deadly hatred and aversion. As for ourselves, we will try to form as far as possible an impartial estimate, although we must maintain at the outset, that Turkestan by far surpasses the known parts of European and Asiatic Turkey, Afghanistan and Persia, both in the wealth and variety of its productions; nay, that it might be difficult to find in Europe, flourishing as it is, and rich in every blessing, a territory that would rival the oasis countries of Turkestan.
The great variety of productions is to be ascribed essentially to the climate of the countries bordering the Oxus and Yaxartes. It is neither harsh, nor could it exactly be termed mild. On the average it corresponds to the climate of Central Europe, though it must be remarked, that the winter is far more severe on the shores of the Sea of Aral and in the mountainous parts of Khokand, and the summer, on the contrary, much warmer in those districts that lie to the south, and often almost tropical in the immediate neighbourhood of the great sandy deserts. The Oxus is frozen over every winter, from Kerki and Tchardshuy to its mouth; in Kungrad, Khodja Ili, and on the right bank, where the Karakalpaks dwell, the winter is generally very severe; the snow lies often for weeks on the ground, and tempestuous north winds (Ayamudjiz) are not unfrequent. Under such conditions there can be no question of a mild climate, and yet in Khiva I have found the heat unbearable as early as the beginning of June, while in August, near Kerki and Belkh, it was more sultry and oppressive, even in the shade, than is the case in really tropical countries. This great variation in the climate produces corresponding local differences in the vegetation of even a small extent of country. Thus, for instance, the cotton of Yengi Üergendj is far better than that in the more northern districts, and the silk of Hezaresp is considered throughout the Khanat of Khiva to be of first-rate quality. Görlen produces the finest rice, and the finest fruit is found in the environs of Khiva, which lies farther south. In Bokhara and in Khokand we see the same effects produced by the climate, and hence the reason why each of the three Khanats contains, on a comparatively small area, such various and manifold productions, as are usually met with only in larger countries, which lie between several zones.[22]
The extraordinary productiveness of the soil is to be ascribed partly to the "blessed" rivers, so-called by the natives, which intersect the oasis-countries, and partly to the quality of the soil. Of these rivers the Oxus is the most important. From its fertilizing influence upon the land it may be compared to the Nile; although, when used as drinking-water, the latter still surpasses it in its pleasantness to the taste. Next comes the Zerefshan, whose name, "Scatterer of Gold," sufficiently indicates the blessing it scatters over its shores. Nor are the smaller rivers, such as the Shehr Sebz and the tributaries of the Yaxartes, of less importance. When we finally add, that the irrigation of the fields is carried on with as much care, and much more ease, than in other parts of Western Asia, we shall cease to marvel any longer at the rich resources of the soil, however grand and important they may still appear.
I have already noticed in my "Travels in Central Asia" that the irrigation is carried on—firstly, by natural canals, called arna, which are formed by the irregular course of the Oxus; secondly, by yaps, i.e., smaller artificial canals, by which every village and colony is surrounded and intersected. In all places of any importance there is a high official, called Mirab (prince or warden of the water), who inspects the various aqueducts, and orders them every spring to be freed from the accumulated sand. During the winter the sluice-gates of all the principal "arnas" are closed as a protection against the inundations which naturally follow the breaking up of the ice. The cleaning of the canals takes place at the beginning of April, and the great object in view is to make them constantly deeper and narrower. The sand that is taken out is heaped up on both sides of the bank, which have thus for miles the appearance of intrenchments, and with their cooling shade protect the precious water from the burning rays of the summer's sun. To the general purposes of communication, however, these intrenched ditches are very prejudicial, although of real advantage to agriculture. Hence, the more expensive kahriz—subterranean canals—in Persia, are far more advantageous, and, moreover, preserve the water purer and cooler. The yaps and arnas in Central Asia form great obstacles to the traveller. Bridges are either very bad or altogether wanting. Let the reader imagine the trouble and the dreadful loss of time incurred, when a caravan with its heavily-laden camels has to cross from ten to fifteen of such embanked canals in one day's march. How prejudicial it is to the rivers to have so much water drawn off, we see clearly in the Oxus. Formerly it flowed, no doubt, into the Caspian Sea, now its embouchure is in the Sea of Aral,[23] and this great change in its watercourse must be ascribed, if not wholly, yet in a great degree, to the evil of the many small canals.
It is difficult to decide which of the three Khanats is the most fertile, especially now, when since the death of the much-lamented Conolly, nobody is able to furnish a succinct account of the nature and resources of the soil. To judge from all I have seen in my journey to Samarkand, and learned from my fellow-travellers, of Khokand, the native home of most of them, I should feel inclined to give the preference to the Khanat of Khiva in point of vegetation. The two other Khanats have more land under cultivation, but Khiva surpasses them by far in the quantity and quality of its productions, with the exception, perhaps, of fruit, which Bokhara furnishes in greater variety, and of finer flavour. Bokhara also deserves the prize with respect to all mineral productions; but the breeding of the finest cattle and horses is the exclusive property of the nomads.
The land is measured by tanab (cord,—a tanab is equal to sixty square yards), and in Khiva and Khokand consists of (1) Mülk, freehold property, which is subject to the payment of taxes; (2) Khanlik, arrear estates, i.e., such land which the Government has either reclaimed and brought under cultivation, or which has devolved upon it by confiscation and conquest. Of this land a third of the net income is claimed by the State. (3) Yarimdji,[24] all land that belongs to the medresse (schools), mosques, or any religious institutions, and which is liable to a fourth of the net income. The Khanlik estates in each district are under the control of a certain number of officials, called Müshürüb, who at the same time collect the taxes. Church property, on the contrary, is under the management of the mutevalis, as in other Islamitic countries.
The quality of the land in general may be judged best by my stating, that the richest soil under cultivation produces one hundred batman (one batman is equal to twenty-four pounds) on a tanab, and that of least productive quality never less than sixty batman. And taking into consideration that the cultivation of the ground here, as everywhere in Asia, is done in the most negligent manner, and is in the highest degree primitive, a competent judge can easily form an idea of the great fertility of the soil.
It is impossible for me to say how many square miles of cultivated land, or of land capable of cultivation, the three Khanats possess. The frequent wars and unsettled times sufficiently explain the numerous ruins of former flourishing colonies. Of the Khanat of Khiva thus much at all events may be assumed, that the area of territories laid waste and turned into deserts is larger than the land at present under cultivation. With the exception of a few single productions, with which the three Khanats carry on an export trade among each other, and with Russia, only so much of the rest is grown as is required for home consumption. There is no doubt that not only might the quality of all present productions be essentially improved, but also considerably multiplied.