The military condition of the empire. The imperial armies of the sixth century were entirely composed of mercenary troops. While the voluntary enlistment of barbarians had been a regular [pg 376]method of recruitment from the time of Diocletian, such troops were at first enrolled directly in the imperial service. But by the opening of the sixth century it had become customary for private individuals, as a rule officers of repute, to enlist troops in their personal service. Such troops were known as bucellarii, from the word bucella, signifying soldiers’ bread. These bucellarii were usually taken into the service of the state along with their leaders, and were then maintained at the public expense. It was with mercenaries of this type that the ranks of Justinian’s armies were largely filled. For the most part they were veteran troops and good fighters, but with all the weaknesses of their class. They were greedy of plunder, impatient of discipline, and both officers and men displayed a conspicuous lack of loyalty. The most effective troops were the cataphracti, mailed horsemen armed with bow, lance and sword. Beside them the infantry played only a subordinate rôle. The fact that the government was obliged to rely upon condottieri for its own maintenance reveals the internal decay of the whole imperial system, and the smallness of the forces which it could put into the field shows the weakness of its resources compared with the aims of Justinian and explains the protracted character of the wars of the period. In fact, the emperor was on the point of abandoning the invasion of Africa for financial reasons, when the prophecy of an eastern bishop induced him to persevere.
The reconquest of Africa, 533–4 A. D. The landing of Belisarius in Africa (September, 533) completely surprised the Vandals. Gailimer was defeated in battle and Belisarius occupied Carthage. A second defeat before the close of the year sealed the fate of the Vandal kingdom. Early in 534 Gailimer surrendered and all resistance came to an end. The Vandal insular possessions—Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearic Islands—fell to the Romans without further opposition.
Revolts of the Moors. However, the Moors, who had managed to assert their independence against the Vandals, were not disposed to pass under the Roman yoke without a struggle. A revolt which broke out in 535 was not finally crushed until 539; and another, which was complicated by a mutiny of the imperial troops, raged between 546 and 548. In the end, the Roman authority was reëstablished over all the African provinces except Mauretania Caesariensis and Tingitana. The previous system of civil administration was [pg 377]revived and elaborate measures taken to secure the defence of the frontiers. However, the ravages of the Moors and the war of restoration had played sad havoc with economic conditions in Africa, and in spite of government assistance, its former prosperity was never revived. Still, Africa had been recovered for the empire and was destined to remain a part of it until the Saracen invasion nearly a century and a half later.
The recovery of Italy, first phase, 535–540 A. D. The overthrow of the Vandal kingdom had scarcely been accomplished when events in Italy gave Justinian the desired pretext for the invasion of the peninsula. Upon the death of King Athalaric, Theoderic’s grandson and successor, in 534, his mother, the regent Amalasuntha, had married Theodahad, whom she made her consort. Shortly afterwards, however, he caused her to be imprisoned and, when she appealed to Justinian for aid, put her to death. As the avenger of his former ally, Justinian made war upon the Gothic king. The possession of Africa gave the Romans an excellent base of operations against Italy. In 535 Belisarius invaded Sicily with 7500 men and speedily reduced the whole island, while another Roman army marched on Dalmatia. From Sicily Belisarius crossed into South Italy, where he found little resistance. The inactivity of Theodahad produced a revolt among his own people. He was deposed, and Witiges became king in his place. The new king was able to purchase the neutrality of the Franks, who were in alliance with Justinian, by ceding to them the Ostrogothic possessions in South Gaul. However, Belisarius continued his advance and occupied Rome (December, 536 A. D.). There he was besieged for a year (March, 537 to March, 538) by the Goths, who were in the end forced to abandon the blockade and fall back upon North Italy. At the same time, the eunuch Narses arrived in Italy at the head of a new Roman army. But since his presence was largely due to Justinian’s mistrust of Belisarius, he failed to coöperate with the latter and accomplished nothing before his recall in 539. The last episode of the campaign was the siege of Ravenna (539–540 A. D.), which was defended by the Gothic king. With its fall and his capture in 540, the resistance of the Goths came to an end. Italy was declared a Roman province, the civil administration was reëstablished, and Belisarius was recalled to assume the command against Persia.
Second phase, 541–554 A. D. But the withdrawal of Belisarius [pg 378]and his best troops led to a revolt of the Goths under the leadership of the brave and energetic Totila (or Baduila) in 541. Within the next three years he drove the Roman garrisons from the greater part of Italy, including Rome. Belisarius was despatched against him, but was given inadequate support and accomplished nothing except the recovery of Rome, which he held until he was recalled at his own request in 548. The drain of a fresh Persian war upon the resources of the empire forced Justinian to the temporary abandonment of Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Italy, apart from Ravenna and a few other fortresses. At last in 552 he was able to resume the struggle and entrusted the conduct of the war to Narses, whose ability as a commander was superior to that of Belisarius himself. The army of Narses numbered over 30,000, and consisted chiefly of barbarian auxiliaries, in particular Lombards, who had been settled as foederati in Noricum since 547. Narses marched upon Italy by way of Illyricum and reached the Roman base at Ravenna. Thence he advanced towards Rome and met and defeated the Goths in a decisive engagement in Umbria (552 A. D.). Totila fell in the battle. A second victory in Campania in the following spring forced the surviving Goths to come to terms. They were allowed to leave Italy and seek a new home beyond the Roman borders. A fresh enemy then appeared in the Franks, who had been nominal allies of the Goths but had rendered them little assistance. A horde of Alamanni and Franks swept down upon Italy and penetrated deep into the peninsula. But Narses annihilated one of their divisions at Capua (554 A. D.), and the remainder were decimated by disease and forced to withdraw. The Roman sway was firmly established over Italy as far as the Alps; but Raetia, Noricum and the Danubian provinces remained lost to the empire.
The long and bitter wars of restoration had wrought frightful damage to the material welfare of Italy, and the heavy financial burdens imposed by the Roman administrative system aroused bitter protests. The measures of relief attempted proved insufficient, the middle class disappeared, the richer landed proprietors left the peninsula, and, as in Africa, the former prosperity was never recalled.
The attempted recovery of Spain, 554 A. D. Following the conclusion of hostilities in Italy, Justinian seized the opportunity which presented itself for intervention in Spain. He sent an army to the support of the rebel Agila against Athanagild, the king of the [pg 379]Visigoths (554 A. D.). The Roman forces occupied Corduba, Carthagena and other coast towns, but on the death of Athanagild, Agila succeeded to his throne and headed the Visigothic opposition to the Romans, who were unable to advance further. However, they retained what they had already conquered.
Extent of the Roman conquests. Justinian’s policy had resulted in the overthrow of the Vandal and Ostrogothic kingdoms, and in the recovery for the empire of Africa, Italy, the Mediterranean islands, and a strip of the Spanish coast. More, the empire was too weak to accomplish.