Historical Parallels, vol. 2 of 3)

by Arthur Thomas Malkin

Salamis—Siege of Leyden—Spanish Armada.

While Leonidas was guarding Thermopylæ, the Grecian fleet took its station nearly opposite to him at Artemisium and the coast of Eubœa. The Euripus, the narrow channel extending between that island and the continent, was well calculated for defence by an inferior force; and as the voyage along the seaward side of the island was considered difficult and dangerous in the imperfection of ancient navigation, a reasonable hope was entertained that the progress of the invader might be stopped both by land and sea. His fleet originally consisted of 1208 galleys of war, besides transports and smaller vessels, and had been reinforced by 120 ships from the Thracian Greeks; but this vast armament was considerably reduced on the coast of Thessaly, by a storm, in which, according to the lowest report, not less than four hundred galleys were destroyed. Numerically, the Grecian fleet was little calculated to engage such an enemy, for it reckoned but 271 trireme galleys, with a few of the smaller vessels called penteconters. “The penteconter, the vessel of Homer’s age, had, like the modern rowboat, only one tier of oars, and its complement of rowers was from fifty to sixty. The trireme, it is generally supposed, had three tiers of oars, by which it gained that swiftness so important in the ancient mode of naval action. Its ordinary complement of rowers was, at the time of which we are treating, from 150 to 160; besides whom it commonly carried forty soldiers, and sometimes more, but on emergencies, particularly when boarded, the whole crew acted with arms.”[45] Of the triremes now in the Grecian fleet, no less than 127 were furnished by Athens, and 40 by Corinth; the rest were supplied in smaller quotas by the other Peloponnesians and islanders. With this superiority in force the Athenians were fully entitled to claim the chief command: but such was the reputation of Sparta at this time, that the Peloponnesian states refused to serve except under a Spartan leader; and the Athenians, with a rare and most laudable moderation, waived their claim rather than run the hazard of discord at so critical a moment. The credit of this forbearance is ascribed to Themistocles.

The Grecian commanders felt their inferiority of force, and were as willing to abandon the Eubœans to their fate, as shortly after to desert the Athenians. The former petitioned Eurybiades, the Spartan admiral, to remain awhile for their protection, until they could remove their families and portable effects. Failing in their application, they went to Themistocles, the Athenian admiral, who for thirty talents, about 7000l., promised to detain the fleet; and succeeded, for Eurybiades was brought over by five, and the Corinthian commander by three talents; the rest appears to have been converted to his own use. Disinterestedness is not to be reckoned among the many brilliant qualities of Themistocles: but his interference, however corrupt in its origin, was wise and beneficial; for to retreat from Artemisium would have been equivalent to deserting the army, and most injurious to the common cause. The Persian commanders, seeing the small force opposed to them, were chiefly afraid lest it should escape, and detached two hundred galleys round Eubœa to blockade the other end of the Euripus, and cut off all retreat. Meanwhile, three battles, unattended with any decisive result, were fought, in all of which the Greeks appear to have gained the advantage, and their spirits were heightened by a reinforcement of fifty-three Athenian triremes, bringing news that the detachment sent round Eubœa had been overtaken by a storm and totally destroyed. But they were severely handled in the last engagement; and the news of the battle of Thermopylæ determined them to retreat nearer to their homes. Previous to his departure, Themistocles engraved these words upon the rocks at the watering place of Artemisium: “Men of Ionia, you do ill in making war upon your fathers, and helping to enslave Greece.[46] By all means therefore come over to us, or, if that cannot be, remain neuter, and persuade the Carians to do the same. But if the necessity which compels you to the part you are engaged in is such as to make a secession impracticable, yet, when we come to action, avoid exertion against us; remembering that you are descended from one blood with us, and that the enmity of the Persians was first drawn upon us in your cause.” In this he probably had a double object: if possible, to induce the Asiatic Greeks to desert; and if not, at least to render them suspected, and procure their exclusion in future from the Persian line.

The fleet doubling the promontory of Sunium, the southern point of Attica, took its second station in the bay of Salamis; a situation recommended to the Athenians by its proximity to their capital; and to the Peloponnesians by the neighbourhood of the Isthmus, the key of Peloponnesus. It was here recruited by fresh ships, so that the fleet now mustered 372 triremes, of which 180 were Athenian. The Athenians expected, with good reason, that the whole strength of Peloponnesus would assemble in Bœotia for the protection of Attica, and were thrown into great consternation on finding themselves deserted, and that their Dorian neighbours had returned to their favourite scheme of fortifying the Isthmus, and there making their final stand. No hope remained, except in unconditional submission or flight, and in this dilemma the people came to the high-minded resolution of abandoning their homes and fortunes to the invader, and seeking a temporary refuge in the neighbouring islands of Salamis and Ægina, and the territory of Trœzen on the opposite coast of the Saronic gulf. Still, when the time arrived, they were unwilling to move, until Themistocles, never at a loss for expedients, called the influence of superstition to his aid. It was believed that a sacred serpent kept watch over Pallas’s temple in the Acropolis. Every month a preparation of honey was placed before the shrine, and believed to be devoured by the animal: but the last offering, the priestess said, remained untouched, and hence the inference was drawn, that the goddess had deserted her city, which availed much towards reconciling the people to depart. Proclamation was therefore made, that the city should be committed to the charge of Pallas the protectress, and that all men of age to serve should embark on board the triremes, having provided for the security of their families as best they might. All complied, except some who were too poor to support themselves in a foreign land, and a few who, putting confidence in an ambiguous oracle, believed safety to be promised to such as remained in the Acropolis. A law was passed for the recall of all exiles.

Meanwhile the Persian land-force advanced from Thermopylæ unopposed through Doris into Phocis, which alone, says Herodotus, “among the states in that quarter, did not join the Mede, for no other cause, as far as I can find upon inquiry, but from their hatred to the Thessalians; for if the Thessalians had adhered to the cause of Greece, the Phocians, as I believe, would then have joined the Mede.” But they could not pretend to withstand such an overwhelming force, and, retiring from the level country, took refuge in the recesses of Mount Parnassus; and the invader carried fire and desolation through the rich but deserted vale of the Cephisus. Arriving at the Bœotian border, Xerxes, while he prosecuted his march towards Athens, detached a force to seize the treasure at Delphi, “with the contents of which,” says the historian, “he was better acquainted than with what he had left at home; so general was its celebrity, especially for the offerings dedicated by Crœsus, son of Alyattes. The citizens were naturally in great alarm both for themselves and their temple, and consulted the oracle whether they should conceal or remove the sacred deposits. The god forbad their interference, saying that he was able to defend his own: but their confidence in their patron seems not to have been unmixed with scepticism, for they transported their families across the Corinthian Gulf into Achaia, and betook themselves to the wilds of Parnassus and other strongholds, leaving in the place only Aceratus, the expounder of oracles, together with sixty men.

“When the barbarians were near at hand, and beheld the temple, at that moment the prophet observed that the sacred arms which it was unlawful for any man to touch had been brought forth from the shrine and laid in front of the building;[47] and he went to tell the Delphians, who were there, this wonder. But greater marvels occurred when the Persians came opposite to the temple of Athene Pronaia; though it is no small wonder that armour should spontaneously change its place; but that which next happened, among all manner of prodigies is most worthy of admiration: for then thunderbolts fell from heaven among them, and two crags, broken from Parnassus, were borne amongst them with a dreadful crash, and slew many; while a noise of shouting was heard from the temple of the goddess.

“From these things combined a panic seized the barbarians; and the Delphians, observing that they retreated, issued down and slew a considerable number; the rest fled straight to Bœotia. And those who returned said, as I hear, that they saw other prodigies besides, for that two warriors of more than mortal stature followed their retreat, slaying them. These the Delphians affirm to have been two heroes, natives of the country, Phylacus and Antinous, to whom ground is consecrated in the neighbourhood of the temple.”[48]

It is curious that two hundred years later, when the Gauls invaded Greece and attacked Delphi, the same answer was returned by the oracle, and the assailants were again defeated in consequence of a panic terror.[49] Stripped of the miraculous, these stories seem to denote that the measures of the Delphian leaders were prudent and successful. The first step was to inspire confidence, which was done by a favourable oracle, and by the reported supernatural removal of the armour; the next, to provide for defence,—and the plan adopted is indicated by the seasonable descent of the rocks. Suppose also that a thunderstorm did really occur thus seasonably, and the whole miraculous tale will be readily and credibly explained.

The main body of the army advanced through Bœotia, which now openly espoused the Persian cause, burning on their way the patriotic towns of Thespiæ and Platæa, and took possession of deserted Athens. The few who had sought refuge in the Acropolis, trusting in the oracle, alone refused submission, and, owing to the natural strength of the fortress, were not reduced without considerable trouble.

The fleet had been with difficulty detained thus long at Salamis, and now the enemy’s approach inspired general consternation: some hurried to their ships to seek safety in immediate flight; and a council being called, it was resolved by the majority of those who remained to retreat to the Isthmus, where, if defeated, they would have the support and protection of their countrymen. This was a consideration of no small importance, for the ancient vessels drew so little water, that they could be run close ashore before they grounded; and it has happened that ships so abandoned, and even taken possession of by the enemy, have been recovered by the opportune arrival of succours by land, who have dashed into the sea and overpowered the intruders. Mnesiphilus, an Athenian, met Themistocles departing from the assembly, and having heard what was determined, observed, “Then you have no longer a country to fight for: the fleet will separate: neither Eurybiades nor any one else will have power to retain it together, and Greece is ruined by lack of counsel.” Struck by the justice of his friend’s views, Themistocles returned to the Spartan admiral, and persuaded him to reassemble the council; and in his eagerness, before Eurybiades, as commander-in-chief, had explained the purpose for which they were met, he proceeded earnestly and at great length to enforce the impolicy of a retreat, when Adeimantus, the Corinthian captain, stopped him with the affronting reproof, “Themistocles, in the games men are beaten with rods who rise before their time.” He replied temperately, “But those who are left behind are never crowned,” and continued to urge the inexpediency of their present determination. “If they retreated,” he said, “they would give up Salamis, Megara, Ægina, thus leading the Persians to the very gates of Peloponnesus; and be obliged to risk a battle in the open sea, which would be doubly prejudicial to an armament inferior both in the number and the swiftness of its vessels. By remaining, on the contrary, they gained the advantage of fighting in a strait; they preserved Salamis, where were the families of a large part of the Athenians; and protected Peloponnesus as effectually as if they fell back and fought at the Isthmus, without committing the error of suffering the enemy to advance unopposed so far. Moreover, if they obtained the victory, there was reason to expect that the enemy would never advance beyond Attica; and thus they would preserve from ravage Megara, Ægina, and above all Salamis, which was marked out by an oracle as the spot where they should overcome their enemy. Here Adeimantus again attacked him, bidding him be silent, as a man without a country, and objected to Eurybiades putting the proposal of one without a city to the vote; saying that Themistocles must first show what city he represented, then come and compare his own with others’ opinions. Themistocles replied in anger, with bitter taunts against Adeimantus and the Corinthians, that the Athenians possessed both the better country and the better city, so long as they had two hundred ships equipped for service, which no Grecian power, go where they would, could repel. He then turned to Eurybiades, and spoke with great earnestness. “If you abide here, and abiding, shall approve your courage—well: if not, you will be the ruin of Greece. For our ships bear the burden of the war. Be advised by me therefore. If not, we will immediately take our domestics, and make sail for Siris in Italy, which of old time is ours, and as oracles say is destined to be colonised by us: and you being abandoned by allies such as we are, will remember my words.” The concluding argument was irresistible, and they resolved to remain.[50]