The Elements of Botany, For Beginners and For Schools

by Asa Gray

CONTENTS.

• Page
• [SECTION I. INTRODUCTORY] [9]
• [SECTION II. FLAX AS A PATTERN PLANT] [11]
  • [Growth from the Seed], [Organs of Vegetation] [11]
  • [Blossoming], [Flower], &c. [14]
• [SECTION III. MORPHOLOGY OF SEEDLINGS] [15]
  • [Germinating Maples] [15]
  • [Cotyledons thickened], [hypogæous in germination] [18]
  • [Store of Food external to the Embryo] [20]
  • [Cotyledons as to number] [22]
  • [Dicotyledonous] and [Polycotyledonous] [23]
  • [Monocotyledonous] [24]
  • [Simple-stemmed Plants] [26]
• [SECTION IV. GROWTH FROM BUDS; BRANCHING] [27]
  • [Buds, situation and kinds] [27]
  • [Vigorous vegetation from strong Buds] [28]
  • [Arrangement of Branches] [29]
  • [Non-developed], [Latent], and [Accessory Buds] [30]
  • [Enumeration of kinds of Buds] [31]
  • [Definite] and [Indefinite growth]; [Deliquescent and Excurrent] [31]
• [SECTION V. ROOTS] [33]
  • [Primary] and [Secondary]. [Contrast between Stem and Root] [34]
  • [Fibrous] and [Fleshy Roots]; names of kinds [34]
  • [Anomalous Roots]. [Epiphytic] and [Parasitic Plants] [36]
  • [Duration]: [Annuals], [Biennials], [Perennials] [37]
• [SECTION VI. STEMS] [38]
  • [Those above Ground: kinds and modifications] [39]
  • [Subterranean Stems and Branches] [42]
  • [Rootstock] [42]
  • [Tuber] [44]
  • [Corm] [45]
  • [Bulb] and [Bulblets] [46]
  • [Consolidated Vegetation] [47]
• [SECTION VII. LEAVES] [49]
  • [§ 1. Leaves as Foliage] [49]
    • [Parts] and [Venation] [50]
    • [Forms as to general outline] [52]
    • [As to apex and particular outline] [53]
    • [As to lobing or division] [56]
    • [Compound], [Perfoliate], and [Equitant Leaves] [57]
    • [With no distinction of Petiole and Blade], [Phyllodia], &c. [61]
  • [§ 2. Leaves of Special Conformation and Use] [62]
    • [Leaves for storage] [62]
    • [Leaves as bud-scales] [63]
      • [Spines] [64]
      • and [for Climbing] [64]
    • [Pitchers] [64]
      • and [Fly-traps] [65]
  • [§ 3. Stipules] [66]
  • [§ 4. The Arrangement of Leaves] [67]
    • [Phyllotaxy] [67]
    • [Of Alternate Leaves] [69]
    • [Of Opposite and Whorled Leaves] [71]
    • [Vernation or Præfoliation] [71]
• [SECTION VIII. FLOWERS] [72]
  • [§ 1. Position and Arrangement, Inflorescence] [73]
    • [Raceme] [73]
    • [Corymb], [Umbel], [Spike], [Head] [74]
    • [Spadix], [Catkin, or Ament] [75]
    • [Panicle]: [Determinate Inflorescence] [76]
    • [Cyme], [Fascicle], [Glomerule], [Scorpioid or Helicoid Cymes] [77]
    • [Mixed Inflorescence] [78]
  • [§ 2. Parts or Organs of the Flower] [79]
    • [Floral Envelopes: Perianth], [Calyx], [Corolla] [79]
    • [Essential Organs]: [Stamen], [Pistil] [80]
    • [Torus or Receptacle] [81]
  • [§ 3. Plan of the Flower] [81]
    • [When perfect, complete, regular, or symmetrical] [81]
    • [Numerical Plan] and [Alternation of Organs] [82]
    • [Flowers are altered branches] [83]
  • [§ 4. Modifications of the Type] [85]
    • [Unisexual or diclinous] [85]
    • [Incomplete], [Irregular, and Unsymmetrical] [86]
    • [Flowers with Multiplication of Parts] [88]
    • [Flowers with Union of Parts]: [Coalescence] [88]
    • [Regular Forms] [89]
    • [Irregular Forms] [90]
    • [Papilionaceous] [91]
      • [Labiate] [92]
      • and [Ligulate Corollas] [93]
    • [Adnation or Consolidation] [94]
    • [Position of Flower or of its Parts] [96]
  • [§ 5. Arrangement of Parts in the Bud] [97]
    • [Æstivation or Præfloration, its kinds] [97]
• [SECTION IX. STAMENS IN PARTICULAR] [98]
  • [Andrœcium] [98]
    • [Insertion, Relation, &c.] [99]
  • [Anther] and [Filament]. [Pollen] [101]
• [SECTION X. PISTILS IN PARTICULAR] [105]
  • [§ 1. Angiospermous or Ordinary Gynœcium] [105]
    • [Parts of a complete Pistil] [105]
    • [Carpels], [Simple Pistil] [106]
    • [Compound Pistil] [with Cells and Axile Placentæ] [107]
    • [One-celled with Free Central Placenta] [108]
    • [One-celled with Parietal Placentæ] [108]
  • [§ 2. Gymnospermous Gynœcium] [109]
• [SECTION XI. OVULES] [110]
  • [Their Parts, Insertion], and [Kinds] [111]
• [SECTION XII. MODIFICATIONS OF THE RECEPTACLE] [112]
  • [Torus, Stipe], [Carpophore], [Disk] [113]
• [SECTION XIII. FERTILIZATION] [114]
  • [§ 1. Adaptations for Pollination of the Stigma] [114]
    • [Close] and [Cross Fertilization], [Anemophilous] and [Entomophilous] [115]
    • [Dichogamy] and [Heterogony] [116]
  • [§ 2. Action of the Pollen and Formation of the Embryo] [117]
• [SECTION XIV. THE FRUIT] [117]
  • [Nature] and [kinds] [118]
  • [Berry], [Pepo], [Pome] [119]
  • [Drupe] and [Akene] [120]
  • [Cremocarp], [Caryopsis], [Nut] [121]
  • [Follicle], [Legume], [Capsule] [122]
  • [Capsular Dehiscence], [Silique] and [Silicle] [123]
  • [Pyxis], [Strobile or Cone] [124]
• [SECTION XV. THE SEED] [125]
  • [Seed-coats] and [their appendages] [125]
  • [The Kernel or Nucleus, Embryo and its parts, Albumen] [127]
• [SECTION XVI. VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK] [128]
  • [§ 1. Anatomical Structure and Growth] [129]
    • [Nature of Growth], [Protoplasm] [129]
    • [Cells and Cell-walls]. [Cellular Structure or Tissue] [130]
    • [Strengthening Cells]. [Wood], [Wood-cells], [Vessels or Ducts] [132]
  • [§ 2. Cell-contents] [136]
    • [Sap], [Chlorophyll], [Starch] [136]
    • [Crystals, Rhaphides] [137]
  • [§ 3. Anatomy of Roots and Stems] [138]
    • [Endogenous] and [Exogenous Stems] [139]
    • [Particular structure of the latter] [140]
    • [Wood], [Sapwood] and [Heart-wood]. [The living parts of a Tree] [141]
  • [§ 4. Anatomy of Leaves] [142]
    • [Epidermis], [Stomata or Breathing pores] [143]
  • [§ 5. Plant Food and Assimilation] [144]
  • [§ 6. Plant Work and Movement] [149]
    • [Movements in Cells or Cyclosis] [149]
    • [Transference from Cell to Cell] [150]
    • [Movements of Organs], [Twining Stems], [Leaf-movements] [150]
    • [Movements of Tendrils], [Sensitiveness] [152]
    • [Movements in Flowers] [153]
    • [Movements for capture of Insects] [154]
    • [Work costs, using up Material and Energy] [155]
• [SECTION XVII. CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS] [156]
  • [Vascular Cryptogams], [Pteridophytes] [156]
  • [Horsetails (Equisetaceæ)], [Ferns] [157]
  • [Club-Mosses (Lycopodium), &c.] [161]
  • [Quillworts (Isoetes)], [Pillworts (Marsilia)] [161]
  • [Azolla]. [Cellular Cryptogams] [162]
  • [Bryophytes]. [Mosses (Musci)] [163]
  • [Liverworts (Hepaticæ)] [164]
  • [Thallophytes] [165]
  • [Characeæ] [167]
  • [Algæ, Seaweeds, &c.] [168]
  • [Lichenes or Lichens] [171]
  • [Fungi] [172]
• [SECTION XVIII. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE] [175]
  • [§ 1. Kinds and Relationship] [175]
    • [Species], [Varieties], [Individuals] [176]
    • [Genera], [Orders], [Classes], &c. [177]
  • [§ 2. Names, Terms and Characters] [178]
    • [Nomenclature of Genera], [Species], and [Varieties] [179]
    • [Nomenclature of Orders], [Classes], &c. [Terminology] [180]
  • [§ 3. System] [181]
    • [Artificial] and [Natural] [182]
    • [Synopsis of Series, Classes, &c.] [183]
• [SECTION XIX. BOTANICAL WORK] [184]
  • [§ 1. Collection or Herborization] [184]
  • [§ 2. Herbarium] [186]
  • [§ 3. Investigation and Determination of Plants] [187]
  • [§ 4. Signs and Abbreviations] [188]
• [Abbreviations of the Names of Botanists] [190]
• [Glossary combined with Index] [193]

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ELEMENTS OF BOTANY.

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Section I. INTRODUCTORY.

1. Botany is the name of the science of the vegetable kingdom in general; that is, of plants.

2. Plants may be studied as to their kinds and relationships. This study is Systematic Botany. An enumeration of the kinds of vegetables, as far as known, classified according to their various degrees of resemblance or difference, constitutes a general System of plants. A similar account of the vegetables of any particular country or district is called a Flora.