Brooks’ theory of heredity is a modification of Darwin’s pangenesis, for Brooks also assumes that minute gemmules are thrown off by each cell in the body of the higher organisms; but such gemmules are not emitted always, and under all circumstances, but only when the cell is subjected to unaccustomed conditions. During the persistence of the ordinary conditions to which it is adapted, the cell continues to perform its special functions as part of the body, but as soon as the conditions of life become unfavourable and its functions are disturbed, the cell ‘throws off minute particles which are its germs or gemmules.’
These gemmules may then pass into any part of the organism; they may penetrate the ova in the ovary, or may enter into a bud, but the male germ-cells possess a special power of attracting them and of storing them up within themselves.
According to Brooks, variability arises as a consequence of the fact that each gemmule of the sperm-cell unites, during fertilization, with that part of the ovum which, in the course of development, is destined to become a cell corresponding to that from which the gemmule has been derived.
Now, when this cell developes in the offspring, it must, as a hybrid, have a tendency to vary. The ova themselves, as cells, are subject to the same laws; and the cells of the organism will continue to vary until one of the variations is made use of by natural selection. As soon as this is the case, the organism becomes, ipso facto, adapted to its conditions; and the production of gemmules ceases, and with it the manifestation of variability itself, for the cells of the organism then derive the whole of their qualities from the egg, and being no longer hybrid, have no tendency to vary. For the same reason the ova themselves will also cease to vary, and the favourable variation will be transmitted from generation to generation in a stereotyped succession, until unfavourable conditions arise, and again lead to a fresh disposition to vary.
In this way Brooks[[231]] attempts to mediate between Darwin and Lamarck, for he assumes, on the one hand, that external influences render the body or one of its parts variable, while, on the other hand, the nature of the successful variations is determined by natural selection. There is, however, a difference between the views of Brooks and Darwin, although not a fundamental difference. Darwin also holds that the organism becomes variable by the operation of external influences, and he further assumes that changes acquired in this way can be communicated to the germ and transmitted to the offspring. But according to his hypothesis, every part of the organism is continually throwing off gemmules which may be collected in the germ-cells of the animal, while, according to Brooks, this only takes place in those parts which are placed under unfavourable conditions or the function of which is in some way disturbed. In this manner the ingenious author attempts to diminish the incredible number of gemmules which, according to Darwin’s theory, must collect in the germ-cells. At the same time he endeavours to show that those parts must always vary which are no longer well adapted to the conditions of life.
I am afraid, however, that Brooks is confounding two things which are in reality very different, and which ought necessarily to be treated separately if we wish to arrive at correct conclusions: viz., the adaptation of a part of the body to the body itself, and its adaptation to external conditions. The first of these adaptations may exist without the second. How can those parts become variable which are badly adapted to the external conditions, but are nevertheless in complete harmony with the other parts of the body? If the conditions of life of the cells which constitute the part in question must become unfavourable, in order that the gemmules which produce variation may be thrown off, it is obvious that such a result would not occur in the case mentioned above. Suppose, for example, that the spines of a hedgehog are not sufficiently long or sharply pointed to afford protection to the animal, how could such an unfavourable development afford the occasion for the throwing off of gemmules, and a resulting variability of the spines, inasmuch as the epidermic tissue in which these structures arise, remains under completely normal and favourable conditions, whatever length or sharpness the spines may attain? The conditions of the epidermis are not unfavourably affected because, as the result of short and blunt spines, the number of hedgehogs is reduced to far below the average. Or consider the case of a brown caterpillar which would gain great advantage by becoming green; what reason is there for believing that the cells of the skin are placed in unfavourable conditions, because, in consequence of the brown colour, far more caterpillars are detected by their enemies, than would have been the case if the colour were green? And the case is the same with all adaptations. Harmony between the parts of the organism is an essential condition for the existence of the individual. If it is wanting, the individual is doomed; but such harmony between any one part and all others, i. e. proper nutrition for each part, and adequate performance of its proper function, can never be disturbed by the fact that the part in question is insufficiently adapted to the outer conditions of life. According to Darwin, all the cells of the body are continually throwing off gemmules, and against such an assumption no similar objection can be raised. It can only be objected that the assumption has never been proved, and that it is extremely improbable.
A further essential difference between Darwin’s theory of pangenesis and Brooks’ hypothesis lies in the fact that Brooks holds that the male and female germ-cells play a different part, and that they tend to become charged with gemmules in different degrees, the egg-cell containing a far smaller number than the sperm-cell. According to Brooks the egg-cell is the conservative principle which brings about the permanent transmission of the true characters of the race or species, while he believes that the sperm-cell is the progressive principle which causes variation.
The transformation of species is therefore believed to take place, for the most part, as follows:—those parts which are placed in unfavourable conditions by the operation of external influences, and which have varied, throw off gemmules which reach the sperm-cells, and the latter by fertilization further propagate the variation. An increase of variation is produced because the gemmules which reach the egg through the sperm-cell may unite or conjugate with parts of the former which are not the exact equivalents of the cells from which the gemmules arose, but only very nearly related to them. Brooks calls this ‘hybridization,’ and he concludes that, just as hybrids are more variable than pure species, so such hybridized cells are also more variable than other cells.
The author has attempted to work out the details of his theory with great ingenuity, and as far as possible to support his assumptions by facts. Moreover, it cannot be denied that there are certain facts which seem to indicate that the male germ-cell plays a different part from that taken by the female germ-cell in the formation of a new organism.
For example, it is well known that the offspring of a horse and an ass is different when the male parent is a horse from what it is when the male parent is an ass. A stallion and a female ass produce a hinny which is more like a horse, while a male ass and a mare produce a mule which is said to be more like an ass[[232]]. I will refrain from considering here the opinion of several authors (Darwin, Flourens, and Bechstein) that the influence of the ass is stronger in both cases, only predominating to a less extent when the ass is the female parent; and I will for the sake of brevity accept Brooks’ opinion that in these cases the influence of the father is greater than that of the mother. Were this so in all cross-breeding between different species and in all cases of normal fertilization, we should be compelled to conclude that the influences of the male and female germ-plasms upon the offspring differ at any rate in strength. But this is by no means always the case, for even in horses the reverse may occur. Thus it is stated that certain female race-horses have always transmitted their own peculiarities, while others allowed those of the stallion to preponderate.