The Evolution of Culture, and Other Essays

by Augustus Henry Lane-Fox Pitt-Rivers

Class C.—Bronze celts of the same outline as Class B, but having a cross ridge or stop on both faces, to prevent the blade from burying itself in the handle.—Figs. 27, 28, bronze celts from Ireland, in my collection; this form is common to the British Isles.

Class D.[216]—Bronze celts, having four longitudinal ridges or flanges, one on each edge, but no cross stop. The flanges are for the purpose of fixing the blade in a bent handle; they exhibit a gradual development of the flange, and an expansion of the cutting edge, which latter takes a semicircular, and in some cases nearly a circular form.—Figs. 29, 30, from Ireland, in my collection, showing front view and section.—Fig. 31, from Versailles, in my collection, with section.—Fig. 32, from France; with side view; see Matériaux pour l’Histoire de l’Homme.—Fig. 33, from Loyette, Department of Isère, from Horae Ferales, front view.—Fig. 34, from the South of France, British Museum, the blade very circular.—Fig. 35, from Alps [Aps?], in Ardèche, British Museum, the circular form of the blade still more developed. This form appears peculiar to the neighbourhood of the Rhone, Horae Ferales.—Fig. 36, from France; with side view; Matériaux.—Fig. 37, from Denmark, British Museum, of copper; this form is rarely found in copper; with section.—Fig. 38, from Denmark, of bronze, from Madsen, Heft iii.—Fig. 39, from Denmark, with semicircular blade, Madsen, Heft iii.—Fig. 40, from Hessen, now in the collection at Hanover, Lindenschmit, Heft i, Taf. iii.—Fig. 41, from near Baltringen, Lindenschmit.—Fig. 42, from Neinheiligen, in Thuringia, British Museum; with section.—Fig. 43, from the Terramara Beds, Castione, Switzerland; with section; Keller, Plate lix.—Fig. 44, from Unter Uhldingen; with section; Keller, Plate xxix.—Fig. 45, from the Terramara Beds, Castione; with section; Keller, Plate lix.—Fig. 46, from the Terramara Beds, Castione; with section; Keller, Plate lix.—Fig. 47, from Hallstatt, in Austria, von Sacken, Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt in Oberösterreich und dessen Alterthümer (Vienna, 1868), Taf. vii; with side view.—Fig. 48, ditto, ditto, found with the body of a child.—Fig. 49, ditto, the shaft of bronze, and the blade of iron, from Hallstatt.—Fig. 50, the same form in iron, also from Hallstatt, in Mr. John Evans’ collection.—Figs. 51 and 52, similar forms, in bronze, from Italy, British Museum.—Fig. 53, the same form, from Telsch, Vilna, Russia, British Museum; with two sections.

Class E.—Bronze celts having both the cross stop and the longitudinal flanges. In the earliest form, the cross stop and flanges are raised upon the faces of the blade, as in Class D. In the more improved form, the upper part of the shaft of the blade is hollowed so as to answer the same purpose and economize the metal. Figs. 54-8, from Ireland; Fig. 54, with rudimentary stop and flanges, in my collection. Figs. 55 and 56, ditto, with rudimentary stop, the flanges more developed; in my collection. Fig. 57, showing a development of both stop and flange, ditto, ditto. Fig. 58, showing the stop and flange further developed, and the metal of the upper part of the blade slightly sunk, ditto, ditto. Fig. 59, a further development of the same, the metal of the upper part of the shaft of the blade reduced to a minimum.—Fig. 60, the same form as Fig. 54, from Denmark, Madsen, Heft iii.—Fig. 61, from near Mainz, Lindenschmit, Taf. iii.—Fig. 62, from the Museum at Wiesbaden, Lindenschmit, Taf. iii.—Fig. 63, from Altona, in Courland; this form has some affinity to Class G, but is introduced here on account of the expansion of the blade.—Figs. 64, 65, and 66, from Italy, in the British Museum, the metal of the shaft slightly sunk to produce a stop.—Fig. 67, from Fiesole, Italy, the metal part of the shaft further reduced.—Fig. 68, from Baron von Stackelberg’s collection, in the British Museum, also described in Klemm, Werkzeuge und Waffen, p. 103, Fig. 180; said to be from Greece, but its close resemblance to those from Italy is remarkable.

Class F.—The same form as Class E, but having the flanges bent by hammering over the stop; the flanges appear to have been cast upright, as in Class E, and to have been bent over the cleft handle after hafting; by this means the necessity for binding the blade on with thongs was obviated. This class forms a transition to the socket type.—Figs. 69, 70, 71, from Ireland, in my collection.—Fig. 72, from the Royal Irish Academy collection, having a loop on the side. See Catalogue R. I. A., ‘Bronze,’ page 379. The introduction of the loop appears to be synchronous with the abandonment of the binding, the overlapping flanges answering that purpose by enclosing the bent portion of the handle, and requiring only that it should be fastened by the loop to prevent its falling off the end of the handle.—Fig. 73, from Denmark, in my collection.—Figs. 74, 75, from Denmark, Madsen, Heft iii.—Fig. 76, from the Museum at Hanover, Lindenschmit.—Fig. 77, from the Museum at Munich, Lindenschmit, Taf. iv.—Fig. 78, from Möringen, Switzerland, Keller, Plate xli.—Fig. 79, from Nidau-Steinberg, Switzerland, Keller, Plate xxxv.—Fig. 80, from Hallstatt; Von Sacken.—Fig. 81, from Italy, British Museum.

Class G.—The pocket type. The bent portion of the handle in this ease was retained in its place by pockets cast on each side of the shaft of the blade; it seems doubtful whether this, or Class F, is to be regarded as the nearest approach to the socket type. In Class F the overlapping was produced by hammering the metal; but Class G is a further advance in the casting process.—Figs. 82 and 83, from Ireland, in my collection; the latter with loop; the pockets or pouches to receive the points of the bent handle are shown in the sections.—Fig. 84, from France; see Matériaux pour l’Histoire de l’Homme.—Fig. 85, found twelve leagues south of Oviedo, Spain, in the collection of the Society of Antiquaries.—Fig. 86, from Andalusia, Spain, British Museum.—Fig. 87, from Denmark, Madsen, Heft iii.—Fig. 88, from the collection at Munich, Lindenschmit.—Fig. 89, from the collection at Hanover, Lindenschmit.—Fig. 89 a, an iron celt of the same form, still in use by the Kalmucs, Siberia, Prehistoric Times, p. 26.

Class H.—The socket type. In some of the specimens of Class G, as for example Figs. 82 and 83, the metal portion of the shaft of the blade dividing the two pouches is reduced to a minimum. The next step was to do away with it altogether and enlarge the sides of the pouches so as to form a single socket. By this means the bent handle no longer required to be cleft to receive the blade, but was inserted whole into the socket, producing greater firmness, each blow of the axe serving to fix it more securely to its handle. The loops, seen only occasionally on Classes F and G, are almost invariably present in Class H.—Figs. 90, 91, 92, 93, 94. Socket celts of bronze, from Ireland and England, in my collection; the form with square sides is very uncommon in Ireland; in Fig. 92 a representation of the overlapping flange of Class F is cast on the surface of the socket.—Fig. 94a, a socket celt of wrought iron with loop, from Merionethshire, British Museum; Archaeologia Cambrensis, vol. i, third series, p. 250.—Figs. 95 and 96, the same forms from France. See Matériaux, &c. The square-sided celt is common in the north of France.—Fig. 97, from Alemquez, Portugal; Coll. Société des Archit. Portugais.—Fig. 98, from Denmark, in my collection.—Figs. 99, 100, Denmark, Madsen, Heft i.—Fig. 100 a, an iron socket celt, from the moss of Nydam, in Slesvik, of the iron period; Engelhardt, Denmark in the Early Iron Age (1866), Pl. xv; believed, from the Roman coins found with it, to be of the third century A.D.[217]—Fig. 101, from the collection at Hanover, Lindenschmit.—Fig. 102, from the Museum at Mainz, Lindenschmit.—Fig. 103, socket celt of iron, from Golssen, Klemm, Fig. 195.—Fig. 104, socket celt of iron, from Thuringia, Klemm, Fig. 194.—Fig. 105, of bronze, from Unter Uhldingen, Switzerland; Keller, Pl. xxix.—Fig. 106, of iron, found near Marin, Switzerland, the socket formed by beating over the blade on one side only; the socket is not quite completed; see Keller, Pl. lxxi.—Fig. 107, the same form of iron, found near Marin; the socket is closed and completed all round, Keller, Pl. lxxi. These specimens in iron may be regarded as connecting links between Classes F and H. Viewing the occurrence of iron celts of this form, it appears not impossible that the introduction of the socket type and the sudden abolition of the central division may have been suggested by the use of the more malleable metal, by means of which the fabricator acquired the art of forming a socket by bending over the metal on one side; the inutility of the central division would thus become apparent.—Fig. 108, bronze socket celt with loop, from Hallstatt, Von Sacken.—Fig. 109, exactly the same form in iron, from Hallstatt; a portion of the wooden handle is still shown in this specimen.—Figs. 110 and 111, bronze socket celts, from Italy, of a variety peculiar to that country, British Museum.—Fig. 112, socket celt of copper, from Hungary, believed by the author to be the only known specimen of pure copper; Keller, Pl. lxxviii.—Fig. 113, bronze socket celt, from Hungary, British Museum.—Fig. 114, bronze socket celt, with two loops, from Kertch, British Museum.—Fig. 115, bronze socket celt, from the province of Viatka, Russia. See Matériaux, &c.—Fig. 116, bronze socket celt with two loops, from the Ural, Russia.—Fig. 117, mode of hafting, Classes A, B, and C.—Fig. 118, mode of hafting, Classes D, E, F, and G.—Fig. 119, mode of hafting, Class H.

In a paper lately read to the Society of Antiquaries by Dr. Thurnam,[218] he has drawn attention to the fact that none but celts of the most primitive type, viz. those belonging to Classes B, C, D, and the most rudimentary form of Class E, have been found in the British tumuli. Scarcely a single instance of the more developed palstave or of the socketed celt has as yet been discovered; the only exceptions being a bronze socket celt found in a tumulus on Plumpton Plain, near Lewes, and a diminutive bronze socket celt found in a tumulus at Arras in the Yorkshire wolds. These Arras barrows are known, however, to belong to the iron age; having produced, amongst other articles composed of that metal, the iron tire of the wheel, and trappings of a war chariot. We learn from this that the discoveries in the tumuli confirm in point of time the order of development inferred from a consideration of the implements themselves.

From the foregoing detailed description of [Plate XVIII] we are enabled to draw the following conclusions, viz.:—(1) That in each of the divisions of Europe therein represented, traces of the development of the celt, from its simplest to its most complex form, have been discovered; the earliest forms being in imitation of those of stone, and being not unfrequently constructed of pure copper. Where some of the connecting links are wanting in the table there is reason to suppose the absence of those links may be the result of imperfect information, and does not necessarily imply a flaw in the continuity of development. (2) That, notwithstanding the simultaneous development which appears to have taken place in different countries, we may nevertheless observe slight differences in the details of construction, which are sufficient to give a distinctive character to the celts of each separate region. Thus, for instance, the celts from Ireland are, as a general rule, shorter and less elegant in form than those found on the Continent. Class C, consisting of stop celts without wings, though common in Great Britain and Ireland, is, so far as I have been able to ascertain, unknown on the Continent. On the other hand, Class D, having wings without stops, is rare in Ireland, but common in France, Denmark, Germany, and Switzerland. The development of this class of celt into a nearly circular edge, as represented in Figs. 34 and 35, is peculiar to the south of France, though traces of it are observable in the celts from Germany, Fig. 40. Class E, having both stop and flange, is found in a more rudimentary stage in Ireland than elsewhere. The palstaves of this form, having shoulders on the side of the blade, are peculiar to Italy and Switzerland, Figs. 66, 67, and 68. Class F, with overlapping wings, is but slightly developed in Ireland, but is fully so in Italy, Germany, and at Hallstatt. Class G, the double pocket variety, has its head quarters in the north-west of France, but is also known in Ireland, Denmark, Spain, and Germany; it is, in so far as I have been able to ascertain, unknown in Italy. Class H, the socket type, varies greatly in different countries; the square form, Figs. 93, 94, 95, 96, 100, and 102, is exceedingly rare in Ireland, but common in France. The socket celts from Italy, Figs. 110 and 111, are of peculiar type, and evidently derive their form from the winged palstave of the same country, Fig. 67. Socket celts of iron have been found at Hallstatt, and in Switzerland, Denmark, Germany, and North Wales. The representation of the overlapping wings, cast on the surface of the socket celt, Figs. 92 and 101, is common in England and Germany, but exceedingly rare in Ireland. The double-looped socket celt, Figs. 97, 114, and 116, appears to be especially characteristic of the Eastern provinces of Russia and Siberia, though found occasionally elsewhere.

In attempting to account for the varieties, which I have described, in the details of construction, coupled with a general uniformity of design throughout the entire region of distribution of these weapons, we may, I think, draw an exact parallel between the development of bronze celts and the development of the forms of cannon between the fourteenth and the nineteenth centuries. From Europe to China we know that the form of cannon has developed upon the same plan. In the same way that the overlapping wings of the palstave were represented on the faces of the socket celt, so the rings of metal which bound together the bars of which the ancient bombard was composed, were represented on the surface of the cast bronze cannon which superseded it. In every country the general type of development of cannon has been the same, but the details of construction have varied in each. Even in our own time, the introduction of breech-loaders has been synchronous throughout Europe; but the French and English cannon are not perfectly identical. Now, the cause of this is sufficiently well known. There has been constant intercommunication between the several countries throughout the whole period of the development of this weapon. Each new improvement as it occurred has been communicated from one country to another, either by contact in war, or by peaceful intercourse; but each country has fabricated its own weapons, and has by that means contrived to give them a national character.