Pine is the only native conifer of timber value, and oak is the most important native deciduous tree, found mostly in coppice or in old, overmature, straggling pasture woods. Compact larger forest areas are entirely absent, but there are many small plantations and parks. For, while Englishmen have not been foresters, they have been active treeplanters, and the mild climate has permitted the introduction of many exotics, especially American conifers. Most of these plantings have been for park and game purposes. The most noted forest plantations are found in Scotland, among them the larch plantations of the Duke of Athole (begun in 1728), of at one time over 10,000 acres, the ducal woodlands now covering over 20,000 acres; the pinery of 25,000 acres, belonging to the Countess of Sealfield, the best managed forest property, partly in natural regeneration, and others. But these plantations too are mostly widely spaced and trimmed, hence not producing timber of much value, so that timber of British production is usually ruled out by architects.
2. Development of Forest Policies.
The Saxons and Normans were primarily hunters, and this propensity to the chase has impressed itself upon their forest treatment into modern times.
The Teutonic Saxons undoubtedly brought with them the feudal and communal institutions of the Germans, under which territory for the king’s special pleasure in the chase was set aside as ‘forest’, and this exclusive right and privilege was on other territory extended to the vassals, while the commoners were excluded from the exercise of hunting privileges on these grounds.
The Normans not only increased the lands under ‘ban’, but they increased also in a despotic manner the penalties and punishments for infraction of the forest laws, and enforced them more stringently than was done on the continent. The feudal system was developed to its utmost. Besides ‘forests’ in which the king alone had exclusive rights, and in which a code of special laws, administered under special courts, was applied, there were set aside ‘chases’, hunting reserves without the pale of the forest laws; ‘parks’, smaller, enclosed hunting grounds; and ‘warrens’, privileged by royal grant or prescription as preserves for small game. Whole villages were wiped out, or lived almost in bondage to satisfy this taste for sport. In the ‘forests’, of which in Elizabeth’s time not less than 75 distinct ones were enumerated, withdrawing an immense area from free use, both ‘vert’ and ‘venison’,—wood and game,—belonged to the king; a host of officers,—stewards, verderers, foresters, regarders, agistors, woodwards,—exercised police duties, and oppressed and ground the people by extortions, while special courts,—‘woodmote’, ‘swainmote’, ‘court of justice seat’,—enforced the savage and cruel laws. The first of these laws was supposed to date from Canute the Great, in 1016, but was eventually found to be a forgery perpetrated by William I in order to lend historical color to his assertion of ‘forest’ rights.
A partial reduction of forests, and a modification of the cruelty and unreasonableness of the laws was obtained by the Charta de Foresta, in 1225, which formulated the laws into a code, and again by the Forest Ordinance of 1306. But not until 1483, under Edward IV, were the people living within ‘forests’ permitted to cut and sell timber, and to fence in for seven years portions of the reserved territory. The last territory was ‘afforested’, i.e., withdrawn for purposes of the chase, under Henry VIII, but he had to secure the consent of the freeholders. The Long Parliament, in 1641, stopped at least the extension of forests, and modified the application of the laws to a more reasonable degree.
The forest laws are still on the statutes, but have fallen into desuetude; the last ‘forest court of justice seat’ was held under Charles I. The ‘forests’ themselves have also almost entirely vanished, some being abolished as late as Queen Victoria’s time, by act of parliament, but the last action under the ‘forest laws’ was had in 1862 when the Duke of Athole tried to establish his right as ‘forester’ for the crown. A full account of the forest laws is contained in Manwood’s volume, the title page of which is here reproduced.
