Nevertheless, in spite of these differences from our conditions, much may be learned from Indian experience in the matter of organization, both to follow and to avoid, and the fact that this can be done without the need of a foreign language will be attractive to most Americans.
The British, like other nations, gained a foothold in India for trading purposes during the 17th century. This they extended during the 18th century, especially after they had attained the ascendancy by Clive’s subjection, in 1757, of the great Mogul, one of the most powerful native princes. By conquest and amicable arrangement, the territory of British influence was gradually increased through the agency of the East India Company, until, in 1858, the British government in India was formally established by royal proclamation; and, in 1877, it was declared an empire.
As stated, native princes still control, under British influence and restrictions, over one-third of the country, or a territory of nearly 700,000 square miles, divided into 13 feudatory states. The total area under direct British control and government is 1,087,000 square miles, of which 25 per cent. (280,000 square miles) is probably forested and waste, some 232,000 square miles or nearly 150 million acres of which are so far declared government property.
The British territory is divided into three presidencies (Madras, Bombay and Bengal) and nine provinces, each with a separate government under a governor, or commissioner, with a council, and all subject to control by the resident governor-general or viceroy and his council, and he in turn is responsible to the Secretary of State at home.
There is, however, little centralization of government functions, the provincial governments being to a large degree at least semi-autonomous, like the states in the United States, and considerable variation exists in the conduct of affairs. The difficulties in introducing something like a uniform forest policy were, indeed, not small, and much credit is due to the wisdom and tact of the three German foresters, who in succession filled the difficult position of head of the Imperial Forest Department and organized the service—Brandis, Schlich and Ribbentrop.
1. Forest Conditions.
In the tropics, rainfall conditions more than any other factor determine forest conditions. The rains of India depend on extraordinary sea winds, or “monsoons,” and their distribution is regulated by the topography of land and relative position of any district with regard to the mountains and the vapor-laden air currents. Thus excessive rainfall characterizes the coast line along the Arabian Sea to about latitude 20 degrees N., and still more along the coast of Lower Burma, and to a lesser extent also the delta of the Ganges and the southern slopes of the Himalayas. A moderately humid climate, if gauged by annual rainfall, prevails over the plateau occupying the larger part of the peninsula and the lower Ganges valley, while a rainfall of less than 15 inches occurs over the arid regions of the lower Indus.
The rainfall, so unevenly distributed territorially, is, moreover, as unevenly distributed through the year. In most districts the principal rains are experienced in summer, the rainy season being followed by a long dry season. But on the Eastern coast the summer rains are slight, and the principal rainy season is delayed into October and November, while in Northern India and the Himalayas, also winter rains occur, irregular and of short duration.
Even where a relatively large rainfall prevails, the climate is dry on account of the high temperature, hence some 30,000,000 acres of the cultivated acreage (which comprises 225,000,000 acres in all) depend on irrigation, over half of this irrigated area lying in the tropical zone.