6. Difference of Opinion on the Eucharist.—As already stated in a previous section, the Catholics maintained that in the eucharist the bread and the wine, were converted by consecration into the very body and blood of Messiah. Zwingle maintained that the bread and wine were symbols merely of Christ's flesh and blood, employed to call to mind his death, and the blessings procured to man by that death. Calvin stood between these two extremes, as also did Luther, and while they disagreed with Catholics, and would not concede that the bread and wine were changed to the very body and blood of Christ, neither would they concede that the bread and wine were merely symbols, but insisted upon a sort of spiritual presence. That is, they held that the saints in the exercise of faith in partaking of the sacrament, do become united in a certain mystic way with Christ, and from this union received an increase of spiritual life.
7. Predestination.—Another thing in which Calvin differed from Zwingle was in relation to the celebrated doctrine of an absolute decree of God respecting the salvation of men. Calvin emphasized the doctrines of Luther and Melanchthon in regard to the part which the grace of God takes in the salvation of men; and perhaps carried it further than they would have done, certainly further than Zwingle did. On this point Calvin taught that God had elected some persons from all eternity to everlasting life; and had appointed others to everlasting punishments; and that for this he had no other ground except his own pleasure, or his most free and sovereign will. This is the doctrine of predestination.
8. The Spread of Calvin's Doctrines.—It was some time before the Swiss could be brought to accept these doctrines so at variance with or not found in the teachings of Zwingle. Yet by the perseverance and the high reputation for learning and piety of Calvin they were very generally accepted in Switzerland; and after him, such was the success of his pupils, that large bodies of Protestants in other nations accepted his doctrines. Especially was this the case in France, England, Scotland, and even in Germany.
9. The Reformation in France.—In France, though in the main her people adhered to the Catholic church, the Reformation found its most faithful adherents, and there they suffered the most violent persecutions. The Protestants were opprobriously called Huguenots [Hu-ge-nots] the origin of the appellation is uncertain. Among these French Protestants were men of high character, and not a few bishops of the church. The king and the magistrates, however, protected the ancient religion by the sword, by penal inflictions; and a large number of pious and good people were put to death, among them not a few of the nobility. [See notes 3 and 4, end of section.]
10. The Reformation in Sweden.—In Sweden the Reformation made rapid headway. Its doctrines were introduced into that country by Olaus Peri, whose zeal for the cause was warmly seconded by the king, Gustavus Vasa, who while an exile in Lubec, during the revolution of 1523, learned something of the "reformed" religion. For some time before 1523 Sweden had been ruled by Danish kings; but in that year, in consequence of the tyranny practiced by Christiern II of Denmark, a revolution was inaugurated by Gustavus Vasa, which ended in Christiern being driven from Sweden. Gustavus was chosen king in his stead. While prejudiced in favor of the "reformed" religion, he acted with great moderation. He invited learned Protestants from Germany whom he directed to instruct his people in the Bible and the Protestant faith. The Bible translated by Olaus Petri he caused to be published and disseminated. In 1526, a great discussion on religion was held at Upsal at the instance of the king, between Olaus Petri and Peter Gallius, a Roman Catholic. Gallius seems to have been so far defeated, even in his own estimation, that in the year following, in the assembly of the states at Westeras, he recommended the "reformed" religion of Luther to the representatives of the nation. After a long discussion, and much opposition from the bishops, it was finally harmoniously decreed that the "reformed" religion should be introduced. From that time until now the power of the pope in Sweden has been prostrated. [See note 5, end of section.]
11. Denmark.—In Denmark the reformation was not accomplished so happily. Christiern, whose authority, as we have seen, was overthrown in Sweden, sought to establish the reformed religion in Denmark, but more from a desire to deprive the bishops of their power, and confiscate their property, than from a right zeal for true religion. In 1520 he invited Martin Reynhard, a disciple of Carlstadt, to Denmark, and made him professor of theology at Copenhagen. Reynhard stayed about a year. When he left, the king sent for Carlstadt. He remained but a short time; and then the king invited Luther himself to come, but the reformer would not accept the invitation. All these failing him, the king set about the work of reformation himself, but as he was a tyrant, his people conspired against him, and banished him from the kingdom, in 1523. He was succeeded by his uncle, Frederic, Duke of Holstein and Sleswick.
12. Frederic was as anxious as Christiern had been to see the reformed religion established in Denmark, but he was more prudent than his nephew. He permitted the leaders among the Protestants to teach publicly the doctrines of Luther, and in time these raised up a strong following. In 1527 the king procured a decree from the senate, at the diet of Odensee, giving religious liberty to the people. By this decree the Danes were left free to embrace the new religion, or continue members of the Catholic Church, as they saw proper. The successor of Frederic—Christian III—went further than this, however, in the interest of the Reformation. He stripped the bishops of their odious power, confiscated the church property, much of which, however, he restored to the original owners, from whom it had been obtained, it is alleged, by base arts. He called John Bugenhagius from Wittemburg, and with his assistance regulated the religious affairs of his realm by making the reformed the established religion of his kingdom. The action of Christian III seems harsh, but a circumstance which mitigates if it does not destroy the harshness of his measures, was the insufferable arrogance, pride and power of the bishops, which was a constant menace to the power of the monarch, and did much to eclipse his glory. [See note 6, end of section.]
13. Holland.—Perhaps from being contiguous to Germany, the Netherlands—Belgium and Holland—soon partook of the spirit of the Reformation—the desire to be free. The writings of Luther were early received and widely read by the Netherlanders. This alarmed the Catholics who, in 1552, established the Inquisition there and persecuted with great vigor all who accepted the doctrines of the reformers. It is estimated that in those provinces which, taken together, constitute the Netherlands, in the reign of Charles V alone—from 1519 to 1552—not less than 50,000 persons lost their lives in consequence of their defection from the church of Rome. But notwithstanding this severe persecution, adherents to the Protestant faith increased. The tyranny of their oppressors seemed to increase the boldness of the people in clamoring for the rights of conscience; and towards the close of the sixteenth century seven of the provinces successfully revolted against the Duke of Alva, Viceroy of the Catholic monarch, Phillip II of Spain. These revolting provinces formed the Dutch Republic, and in a short time became the most formidable maritime power in the world. They suffered the most and wrought the most in behalf of the liberty of conscience, the freedom of commerce, and the liberty of the state. It is said by one historian that "In freedom of conscience they were the light of the world."[[42]] It is well known that for many years their land was the asylum for the oppressed, especially for those persecuted for their religion.
14. England.—The Reformation in England took on a different aspect to what it did in the other countries. When Luther began his assault upon the church of Rome, the English monarch, Henry VIII, appeared as a champion on the side of the Roman pontiffs. He wrote a book against Luther in defense of the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church, which met with such favor in the eyes of the pope that he conferred upon Henry the title of "Defender of the Faith." Henry's book appeared in 1522. Soon after this the king began to question the legality of his marriage with Catherine of Aragon.
15. Catherine had been the wife of the king's deceased brother, Arthur; and a marriage with a deceased brother's widow was regarded as contrary to the law of God.[[43]] Henry therefore applied to the pope for the annulment of his marriage, since his conscience would not permit him to cohabit longer with his deceased brother's wife. The conduct of the king, however, was such as to give strong ground to the belief that it was his love for Ann Boleyn, an English lady of high birth, and not conscientious scruples as to the lawfulness of his marriage with Catherine. The queen's beauty had faded and some disease, it is said, had rendered her person less agreeable. Still, to do Henry justice, it must not be concealed that his father had scrupled the legitimacy of the marriage; a foreign court had made it an objection to intermarriage with his children by his wife; and the people of England very generally entertained fears respecting the succession to his crown, and these political considerations doubtless had their influence.[[44]] Still it will not be denied that after the king had fallen in love with Ann Boleyn, his love for her and not political considerations, or religious scruples, was the incentive that prompted him to seek a divorce.