Ethics — Part 4

by Benedictus de Spinoza

Note.- He who rightly realizes, that all things follow from the necessity of the divine nature, and come to pass in accordance with the eternal laws and rules of nature, will not find anything worthy of hatred, derision, or contempt, nor will he bestow pity on anything, but to the utmost extent of human virtue he will endeavour to do well, as the saying is, and to rejoice. We may add, that he, who is easily touched with compassion, and is moved by another's sorrow or tears, often does something which he afterwards regrets; partly because we can never be sure that an action caused by emotion is good, partly because we are easily deceived by false tears. I am in this place expressly speaking of a man living under the guidance of reason. He who is moved to help others neither by reason nor by compassion, is rightly styled inhuman, for (III: xxvii.) he seems unlike a man.

Prop. LI. Approval is not repugnant to reason, but can agree therewith and arise therefrom.

Proof.- Approval is love towards one who has done good to another (Def. of the Emotions:xix.); therefore it may be referred to the mind, in so far as the latter is active (III:lix.), that is (III:iii.), in so far as it - understands; therefore, it is in agreement with reason, &c. Q.E.D.

Another Proof.- He, who lives under the guidance of reason, desires for others the good which he seeks for himself (IV:xxxvii.); wherefore from seeing someone doing good to his fellow his own endeavour to do good is aided; in other words, he will feel pleasure (III:xi.Note) accompanied by the idea of the benefactor. Therefore he approves of him. Q.E.D.

Note.- Indignation as we defined it (Def. of the Emotions:xx.) is necessarily evil (IV:xlv.); we may, however, remark that, when the sovereign power for the sake of preserving peace punishes a citizen who has injured another, it should not be said to be indignant with the criminal, for it is not incited by hatred to ruin him, it is led by a sense of duty to punish him.

Prop. LII. Self-approval may arise from reason, and that which arises from reason is the highest possible.

Proof.- Self-approval is pleasure arising from a man's contemplation of himself and his own power of action (Def. of the Emotions:xxv.). But a man's true power of action - or virtue is reason herself (III:iii.), as the said man clearly and distinctly contemplates her (II:xl., II:xliii.); therefore self-approval arises from reason. Again, when a man is contemplating himself, he only perceived clearly and distinctly or adequately, such things as follow from his power of action (III:Def.ii.), that is (III:iii.), from his power of understanding; therefore in such contemplation alone does the highest possible self-approval arise. Q.E.D.

Note.- Self-approval is in reality the highest object for which we can hope. For (as we showed in IV:xxv.) no one endeavours to preserve his being for the sake of any ulterior object, and, as this approval is more and more fostered and strengthened by praise (III:liii.Coroll.), and on the contrary (III:lv.Coroll.) is more and more disturbed by blame, fame becomes the most powerful of incitements to action, and life under disgrace is almost unendurable.

Prop. LIII. Humility is not a virtue, or does not arise from reason.

Proof.- Humility is pain arising from a man's contemplation of his own infirmities (Def. of the Emotions:xxvi.). But, in so far as a man knows himself by true reason, he is assumed to understand his essence, that is, his power (III:vii.). Wherefore, if a man in self-contemplation perceives any infirmity in himself, it is not by virtue of his understanding himself, but (III:lv.) by virtue of his power of activity being checked. But, if we assume that a man perceives his own infirmity by virtue of understanding something stronger than himself, by the knowledge of which he determines his own power of activity, this is the same as saying that we conceive that a man understands himself distinctly (IV:xxvi.), because (Land reads: "Quod ipsius agendi potentia juvatur"- which I have translated above. He - suggests as alternative readings to `quod', 'quo' (= whereby) and 'quodque' (= and that).) his power of activity is aided. Wherefore humility, or the pain which arises from a man's contemplation of his own infirmity, does not arise from the contemplation or reason, and is not a virtue but a passion. Q.E.D.