PREFACE.

In writing this handbook on the French Revolution, it has been my endeavour to give a correct and impartial account of the most important events of the revolutionary period, and of the motives by which the leading characters were actuated. Much has necessarily been omitted which finds a place in larger works. Those who wish to pursue the subject further, and have time at their disposal, would do well to study, besides general histories, some of the many books lately published which deal with special branches of the subject, and often enable the reader to form a more independent judgment both of men and events than is possible from the perusal of works of the former class alone. Amongst general histories those of Michelet and Louis Blanc will probably be found most serviceable. No satisfactory account of the relations of France with other countries is to be found in the French tongue, partly because French historians still write with bias, partly, also, because they hitherto either have been unacquainted with, or have ignored the results of German research. Professor Von Sybel’s well-known book, ‘Geschichte der Revolutionszeit,’ contains the fullest and best account of the relations which existed between the different States of Europe, but it is not an impartial one. Hermann Hüffer’s books are valuable contributions to our knowledge of diplomatic relations, and, being written from an opposite point of view, should be studied by all readers of Von Sybel. The history of the foreign policy of England during this period has still to be written. M. Sorel has lately published in the pages of the ‘Révue Historique’ a full account of the foreign policy pursued by the Committee of Public Safety after Robespierre’s fall, and of the negotiations leading to the treaties of peace signed in 1795 between France and Prussia and France and Spain. Much fresh information regarding the internal condition of France during the revolutionary period is to be found scattered in local and special histories of various kinds. Amongst such may be specially mentioned Mortimer Ternaux’s ‘Histoire de la Terreur,’ and ‘La Justice Révolutionnaire,’ by Berriat St. Prix. M. Taine in his great work has collected a large number of extracts from documents lying in the archives of the departments, but entire absence of classification, and the strong political bias of the writer, makes this work of less value to the student than others of less pretensions. Amongst the best of local histories are the works of M. Francisque Mège, which reveal the course taken by the Revolution in the province of Auvergne. Biographical works are numerous. Mirabeau’s character will best be learnt from his correspondence with the Count de la Marck. M. D’Héricault’s ‘Révolution de Thermidor’ contains a detailed account of the policy pursued by Robespierre after the expulsion of the Girondists. Danton’s life and character can best be studied in the works of M. Robinet. Schmidt’s ‘Pariser Zustände während der Revolutionszeit’ contains the best existing account of the economic condition of Paris between 1789 and 1800. As it is improbable that those for whom this book is in the first place intended will have any idea of the amount represented by so many thousand or million livres, I have invariably given the English equivalent of the French money, following the table inserted by Arthur Young in his ‘Travels in France.’ After the introduction of the revolutionary calendar, I have in giving dates followed the table in ‘L’Art de vérifier les Dates.’ In consequence of the different system of intercalation pursued in the two calendars, the correspondence of dates varies from year to year, and in consequence of leaving this fact unnoticed even French historians sometimes give the date in the old style wrongly. I have only further to add that the purple lines upon the map of France in provinces represent the frontiers where customs duties were levied under the old Monarchy. They are copied from a map published with Necker’s works. It will be seen that Alsace and Lorraine, as well as Bayonne and Dunkirk, were allowed to trade freely with the foreigner. Marseilles enjoyed the same privilege.

CONTENTS.

[CHAPTER I].
FEUDALISM AND THE MONARCHY.
PAGE
The Monarchy in France [1]
Social condition of France [3]
Feudal rights [4]
Condition of the Church [6]
Government and administration [7]
The privileged classes [8]
Taxation [9]
Condition of the People [11]
Interference with trade [13]
Public opinion in France [13]
Voltaire and his followers [13]
The Encyclopædists [14]
The Church and Christian Theology attacked [15]
The Economists [16]
Rousseau [16]
[CHAPTER II].
FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XVI., 1774–1789.
The Ministry of Turgot [18]
Opposition raised to his reforms [19]
Character of Louis XVI. [19]
Character of Marie Antoinette [20]
1776. Dismissal of Turgot [21]
Movement of Reform extends over Europe [21]
Condition of England [23]
Pitt in Office [24]
Reaction after Turgot’s dismissal [25]
Ministry of Necker [25]
Necker opposed by the Parliaments [25]
1781. He resigns office [26]
Desire for political liberty [26]
1776. American Declaration of Independence [26]
1783. Ministry of Calonne [27]
1787. The Assembly of Notables [27]
Ministry of Brienne [27]
General disaffection [28]
1788. Second Ministry of Necker, and calling of the States General [29]
Pamphlets and Cahiers [29]
Siéyès’ Pamphlet—What is the Third Estate? [30]
Double Representation of the Third Estate [31]
[CHAPTER III].
THE ASSEMBLY AT VERSAILLES, 1789.
May 5, 1789. Meeting of the States General [33]
Relation of the King to the Revolution [33]
Question whether the States were to sit as one or as three chambers left undecided [33]
Evil consequences of the Royal policy [34]
Character and policy of Mirabeau [35]
Title of National Assembly adopted by the Third Estate [37]
Excitement and disorder in Paris [38]
Louis takes part with the Upper Orders [39]
June 20. Tennis Court Oath [40]
Royal Sitting of June 23 [40]
The States constituted as one Chamber [41]
July 14. The fall of the Bastille [43]
Establishment of a Municipality and of a National Guard in Paris [46]
Visit of Louis to the Capital [47]
Risings in the Provinces [48]
Decrees of August 4 [49]
Composition of the Assembly [51]
The Reactionary Right [51]
The Right Centre [52]
The Centre and Left [52]
The Extreme Left [53]
Causes giving ascendency to the Left [54]
Policy of Mirabeau [56]
Declaration of the Rights of Man [58]
New Constitution; Legislature to be formed of one House; Veto given to the King [58]
Scarcity of Bread [59]
Character of the National Guard of Paris [60]
October 6. The King and Queen brought to Paris [60]
[CHAPTER IV].
THE CONSTITUTION, 1789–1791.
Results of the Movement of October 6 [63]
The Jacobins [64]
The Constitution; Administrative Changes; Establishment of 44,000 Municipalities [65]
Judicial Reforms [66]
Increase of the State debt [67]
Church Property appropriated by the State [67]
Creation of Assignats [68]
Civil Constitution of the Clergy [69]
Feast of the Federation [69]
Emigration of the nobles [70]
Embitterment of the Relations between nobles and peasants [71]
Weakness of the Central Government [72]
Mutinies in the Army [73]
Imposition of an Oath on the Clergy; Schism in the Church [74]
The Constitution decried by the Ultra-Democrats [76]
Brissot [76]
Desmoulins [77]
Marat [78]
Sources of influence exercised by the Ultra-Democrats [79]
Influence exercised by Jacobin Clubs [80]
September 1790. Resignation of Necker [81]
The Commune of Paris; Composition of its Municipality [81]
Mirabeau’s policy; his Death, April 2, 1791 [84]
Position of the Constitutionalists [85]
[CHAPTER V].
THE FALL OF THE MONARCHY, 1791–1792.
Unpopularity of Marie Antoinette [87]
June 20, 1791. Flight of the Royal Family [88]
Ultra-Democrats seek the Establishment of a Republic [91]
July 17. Massacre of the Champ de Mars [91]
Attempt to revise the Constitution [93]
The work of the National Assembly; legal and financial reforms [93]
Creation of Assignats of small value [94]
Plans of the Queen [94]
Policy of territorial aggrandisement pursued by the Great Powers [96]
Austria and Russia at war with Turkey [97]
Death of Joseph II. [97]
Treaty of Reichenbach [97]
Declaration of Pilnitz [98]
Designs of Catherine II. on Poland [98]
Leopold II. unwilling to engage in war with France [98]
The new Legislative Assembly; its composition [99]
Policy of the Girondists [100]
Ecclesiastical policy of the Legislature [101]
Emigrants encouraged by Princes of the Empire [101]
Growth of a warlike spirit in the Assembly [102]
The French Revolution is more than a National movement [104]
Commencement of war with Austria and Prussia [105]
The Jacobins embody a spirit of suspicion [106]
Robespierre’s character [107]
Administrative anarchy [109]
Troubles at Avignon [110]
The Girondists hope for the best [111]
Lafayette denounces the Jacobins [112]
The mob invades the Tuileries on June 20 [113]
The Country declared in danger; Manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick [114]
Preparations made for an insurrection [115]
Insurrection of August 10; Suspension of the King [117]
[CHAPTER VI].
THE FALL OF THE GIRONDISTS, 1792–1793.
Formation of the new Commune of Paris [119]
The September massacres [121]
The defence of the Argonnes [123]
The meeting of the Convention, and the abolition of Monarchy [124]
The Girondists and the Mountain [125]
Weakness of the Centre [128]
Re-election of the Commune [129]
Conquest of Savoy, Mainz, and Belgium [130]
Question of the annexation of Belgium [131]
The Opening of the Scheldt, and the order to the Generals to proclaim the Sovereignty of the People [134]
Objects of the Allies [135]
Pitt’s ministry in England [136]
Views taken of the French Revolution in England [137]
Trial and Execution of Louis XVI. [139]
War with England; the French expelled from Belgium [141]
Establishment of the Revolutionary Court; Defeat of Neerwinden [143]
Party strife in the Convention [144]
Establishment of the Committee of Public Safety [145]
Deputies in mission [146]
Laws against Emigrants and Nonjurors [147]
Policy of the Mountain [148]
The economical situation [149]
Popular remedies opposed by the Girondists [151]
The Commune leads a movement against the Girondists [153]
Expulsion of the leading Girondists [155]
[CHAPTER VII].
THE COMMUNE AND THE TERROR, 1793.
State of public feeling [156]
Girondist and Royalist movements; Resistance in Lyons and Toulon [157]
General submission to the Convention [158]
War in La Vendée [159]
Successes of the Vendeans [160]
Successes of the Allies [161]
Coolness between Austria and Prussia [162]
Assassination of Marat [163]
Sanguinary tendencies of the Government [165]
Growing strength of the Committee of Public Safety [166]
Power of the Commune [167]
Views of Hébert and Chaumette [168]
Introduction of the conscription [170]
Maximum laws [171]
Laws against speculation [172]
Depression of trade and agriculture [173]
Law of ‘Suspected Persons’ [175]
Increased activity of the Revolutionary Court [176]
Execution of the Queen and the Girondists [177]
Worship of Reason [178]
Introduction of the Revolutionary calendar [180]
Surrender of Lyons [181]
Destruction of the Vendean army [182]
The Terror in the Departments [183]
The Terrorists a small minority [186]
[CHAPTER VIII].
THE FALL OF THE HÉBERTISTS AND DANTONISTS, 1793–1794.
Condition of the Army [188]
Carnot’s military reforms [189]
Campaign in Belgium and the Rhine; Victories of Hondschoote and Wattignies [191]
The Allies expelled from Alsace by Hoche and Pichegru [192]
Legislation of the Convention [193]
Cambon’s financial measures [195]
Growing feeling against the Commune [196]
Robespierre attacks the Hébertists [197]
The Old Cordelier [199]
The Hébertists attack the Dantonists [200]
Robespierre’s influence over the Jacobins [201]
Robespierre abandons the Dantonists [202]
Execution of the Hébertists and Dantonists [204]
[CHAPTER IX].
THE FALL OF ROBESPIERRE, 1794.
Despotism of the Committee of Public Safety [204]
Aims of Robespierre [205]
Aims of St. Just [206]
Financial object of the continuation of the Terror [207]
The Terror systematised [208]
Renewal of the War in La Vendée [209]
Treaty of the Hague between England and Prussia [209]
Insurrection in Poland [210]
Differences between England and Prussia [211]
The Allied Forces driven from Belgium [212]
Worship of the Supreme Being instituted by Robespierre [214]
Increased activity of the Revolutionary Court [215]
Position of Robespierre [216]
Discords break out within the Committee of Public Safety [217]
Insurrection of Thermidor [219]
Execution of the Robespierrists [220]
[CHAPTER X].
FALL OF THE MONTAGNARDS, 1794–1795.
Reactionary Movement in Paris and in the Departments [221]
Parties in the Convention [222]
Readmission of the expelled Girondist Deputies to the Convention [223]
Repeal of Maximum Laws, and suffering in Paris [225]
Insurrection of Germinal 12 [226]
Reaction in Paris, and in the Departments [227]
The public exercise of all forms of worship permitted by the Convention [228]
The White Terror [229]
Insurrection of Prairial 1 [230]
Proscription of Montagnards [231]
[CHAPTER XI].
THE TREATY OF BASEL AND THE CONSTITUTION OF 1795.
Conquest of Holland by Pichegru [232]
Foreign policy of the Convention [233]
Foreign policy of Thugut [235]
Foreign policy of Catherine II.; Alliances between Russia and Austria [236]
English foreign policy; Successes at Sea, and conquest of French Colonies [237]
Prussian foreign policy; Peace made at Basel between Prussia and France [238]
Position of Spanish Government; Treaty of Peace between France and Spain [240]
War in the West; Hoche appointed Commander-in-Chief [242]
Expedition of Emigrants to Quiberon [243]
Position of the Convention; its unpopularity [245]
Death of the Dauphin [245]
The Convention sanctions the use of Churches for Catholic worship [246]
Position of the Clergy; Parties amongst them [247]
The Convention frames the Constitution of 1795 [248]
Special Laws passed to maintain the Republican Party in Power [249]
Insurrection of Vendémiaire 13 suppressed by Napoleon Bonaparte [250]
Law of Brumaire 3, excluding relations of Emigrants from Office [250]
The Five Directors; Position of the New Government [251]
INDEX [255]

MAPS.

Europe in 1789[To face title page]
Map of France in Provinces [9]
Revolutionary Paris [43]
Map of France in Departments [65]
Map of Belgium [132]
Map of the Rhine [190]
Map of Quiberon [241]