The wonderful thing about this process is the power of the fertilized ovum, produced by the union of two minute cells from different parents, to develop into the likeness of these parents. This likeness, however, though it extends to minute particulars, is not absolute. The offspring is not exactly like either parent, nor does it present a precise mean between the characters of the two parents. There is always some amount of individual variability, the effects of which, as we shall hereafter see, are of wide importance. We are wont to say that these phenomena, the transmission of parental characteristics, together with a margin of difference, are due to heredity with variation. But this merely names the facts. How the special reproductive cells have acquired the secret of developing along special lines, and reproducing, with a margin of variability, the likeness of the organisms which produced them, is a matter concerning which we can at present only make more or less plausible guesses.

Scarcely less wonderful is the power which separated bits of certain organisms, such as the green freshwater hydra of our ponds, possess of growing up into the complete organism. Cut a hydra into half a dozen fragments, and each fragment will become a perfect hydra. Reproduction of this kind is said to be asexual.

We shall have, in later chapters, to discuss more fully some of the phenomena of reproduction and heredity. For the present, it is sufficient to say that animals reproduce their kind by the detachment of a portion of the substance of their own bodies, which portion, in the case of the higher animals, undergoes a series of successive developmental changes constituting its life-history, the special nature of which is determined by inheritance, and the result of which is a new organism in all essential respects similar to the parent or parents.

11. Animals are living organisms, and "not vegetables." The first part of this final statement merely sums up the characteristics of living animals which have gone before. But the latter part introduces us to the fact that there are other living organisms than those we call animals, namely, those which belong to the vegetable kingdom.

It might, at first sight, be thought a very easy matter to distinguish between animals and plants. There is no chance, for example, of mistaking to which kingdom an oak tree or a lion, a cabbage or a butterfly, belongs. But when we come down to the simpler organisms, those whose bodies are constituted by a single cell, the matter is by no means so easy. There are, indeed, lowly creatures which are hovering on the boundary-line between the two kingdoms. We need not discuss the nature of these boundary forms. It is sufficient to state that unicellular plants are spoken of as protophyta, and unicellular animals as protozoa, the whole group of unicellular organisms being classed together as protista. The animals whose bodies are formed of many cells in which there is a differentiation of structure and a specialization of function, are called metazoa, and the multicellular plants metaphyta. The relations of these groups may be thus expressed—

Animals. Plants.
Metazoa.Protozoa. Protophyta.Metaphyta.
Protista.

There are three matters with regard to the life-process of animals and plants concerning which a few words must be said. These are (1) their relation to food-stuffs; (2) their relation to the atmosphere; (3) their relation to energy, or the power of doing work.

With regard to the first matter, that of food-relation, the essential fact seems to be the dependence of animals on plants. Plants can manufacture protoplasm out of its constituents if presented to them in suitable inorganic form scattered through earth and air and water. Hence the peculiar features of their form, the branching and spreading nature of those parts which are exposed to the air, and the far-reaching ramifications of those parts which are implanted in the earth. Hence, too, the flattened leaves, with their large available surface. Animals are unable to manufacture protoplasm in this way. They are, sooner or later, dependent for food on plant-products. It is true that the carnivora eat animal food, but the animals they eat are directly or indirectly consumers of vegetable products. Plants are nature's primary producers of organic material. Animals utilize these products and carry them to higher developments.

In relation to the atmosphere, animals require a very much larger quantity of oxygen than do plants. This, during the respiratory process, combines with carbon so as to form carbonic acid gas; and the atmosphere would be gradually drained of its oxygen and flooded with carbonic acid gas were it not that plants, through their green colouring matter (chlorophyll), under the influence of light, have the power of decomposing the carbonic acid gas, seizing on the carbon and building it into their tissues, and setting free the oxygen. Thus are animals and green plants complementary elements in the scheme of nature.[A] The animal eats the carbon elaborated by the plant into organic products (starch and others), and breathes the oxygen which the plant sets free after it has abstracted the carbon. In the animal's body the carbon and oxygen recombine; its varied activities are thus kept going; and the resultant carbonic acid gas is breathed forth, to be again separated by green, growing plants into carbonaceous food-stuff and vitalizing oxygen. It must be remembered, however, that vegetable protoplasm, like animal protoplasm, respires by the absorption of oxygen and the formation of carbonic acid gas. But in green plants this process is outbalanced by the characteristic action of the chlorophyll, by which carbonic acid gas is decomposed.

Lastly, we have to consider the relations of animals and plants to energy. Energy is defined as the power of doing work, and it is classified by physicists under two modes—potential energy, or energy of position; and kinetic energy, or energy of motion. The muscles of my arm contain a store of potential energy. Suppose I pull up the weight of an old-fashioned eight-day clock. Some of the potential energy of my arm is converted into the potential energy of the weight; that is, the raised weight is now in a position of advantage, and capable of doing work. It has energy of position, or potential energy. If the chain breaks, down falls the weight, and exhibits the energy of motion. But, under ordinary circumstances, this potential energy is utilized in giving a succession of little pushes to the pendulum to keep up its swing, and in overcoming the friction of the works. Again, the energy of an electric current may be utilized in decomposing water, and tearing asunder the oxygen and hydrogen of which it is composed. The oxygen and hydrogen now have potential energy, and, if they be allowed to combine, this will manifest itself as the light and heat of the explosion. These examples will serve to illustrate the nature of the changes which energy undergoes. These are of the nature of transferences of energy from one body to another, and of transformations from one mode or manifestation to another. The most important point that has been established during this century with regard to energy is that, throughout all its transferences and transformations, it can be neither created nor destroyed. But there is another point of great importance. Transformations of energy take place more readily in certain directions than in others. And there is always a tendency for energy to pass from the higher or more readily transformable to the lower or less readily transformable forms. When, for example, energy has passed to the low kinetic form of the uniformly distributed molecular motion of heat, it is exceedingly difficult, or practically impossible, to transform it into a higher and more available form.