Musical Myths and Facts, Volume 2 (of 2)

by Carl Engel

As some account of the mythological traditions respecting the origin of music has already been given in the present work,[112] there is no necessity to advert to them here.

The recorded dates of the Greek music with which the survey commences must not be taken as authentic until we arrive at about the seventh century before the Christian era.

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CHRONOLOGY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC.

	b.c.
Cadmus, from Phœnicia, and Cecrops, from Egypt, settle in Greece.	2000	Music, with other arts and sciences, is introduced into Greece from Western Asia and Egypt.
Abraham (1900). Joseph (1750). Moses (1550).	1750	The Jews have vocal music with instrumental accompaniment (Gen., Chap. xxxi., v. 26, 27).
The oracle of Delphi. Daedalus, Grecian sculptor and architect, invents the sails of ships, &c.	1500	Hyagnis, in Greece, improves the flute and invents the Phrygian Mode. Marsyas, a distinguished flute-player, invents a new species of flute made of metal. Linus ventures upon a musical contest with Apollo, and is killed by him. "Then sang Moses and the children of Israel." (Exod. xv.)
The Argonauts, led by Jason, sail to Colchis. Hercules. Theseus. Triptolemus introduces agriculture into Greece.	1300	Orpheus, lyrist, singer, poet, and law-giver, composes hymns. Amphion, lyrist, singer, and composer, improves the Grecian lyre. Musæus, lyrist, sets music to the words of the oracles.
Castor and Pollux, Grecian heroes.		About this time the Greeks instituted most of their public games in which musical contests formed part.
Tyrus, on the coast of Phœnice, founded by a colony of Sidonians.	1250	Olympus of Mysia, a celebrated flutist. Daphnis of Sicily. To him is ascribed the invention of the chalumeau, and of the bucolic poetry.
Adrastus celebrates the first Pythian Games in honour of Apollo.		Thamiris, singer and player on the kithara, a species of lyre, is chosen by the Scythians for their King on account of his musical accomplishments.
Amazons, or female warriors, from the Caucasus, invade Greece.	1240	Euneus, a distinguished singer and kithara-player of Greece. His descendants remain during many generations the privileged kithara-players at the public festivities in Athens.
Troy taken by the Greeks (1184).	1200	Agias, a celebrated Greek musician about the time of the destruction of Troy.
Grecian heroes: Menelaus, Agamemnon, Achilles, Ulysses. Trojan heroes: Priam, Hector, Paris, Æneas.		The invention of the Dorian Mode is ascribed to Lamyras of Thracia; the invention of the Lydian Mode, to Carius; and the invention of the Ionian Mode, to Pythermus. Celmis, a priest of Creta, invents (or probably improves) several instruments of percussion.
Codrus, the last King of Athens (1070). Abolition of Royalty.	1100	Ardalus, of Troezen, invents a new species of flute for accompanying vocal music.
King Saul. Cheops, the builder of the greatest Pyramid in Egypt.		The Greeks about this time possessed various kinds of stringed instruments and wind instruments, and the names of several musicians are recorded who improved the instruments, or introduced innovations in the construction of the popular ones.
	1050	David, King of Judah, musician and poet. Psalms.
King Solomon (1010-975).		King David institutes in Jerusalem a School for vocal and instrumental music (I. Chron., Chap. xv., v. 16).
Dido builds the city of Carthage on the north coast of Africa.	1000	Bardus, a King of Gallia, is said to have introduced music into Western Europe, and to have been the first of the singers known as the Bards.
Development of the Republics in Greece.	900	Homer, singer and poet, born probably in Chios. Iliad and Odyssey.
Lycurgus reforms the Republic of Lacedæmonia, and gives laws to the Spartans.	850	Hesiodus, singer and poet, born in Boeotia. Simmicus, inventor of an instrument with thirty-five strings, called Simmikon or Simmicium. Thaletas, of Creta, musician and poet, composes in Sparta, under Lycurgus, the laws and war-songs for the voice. Phœcinus, of Greece, sketches the first musical rules.
Rome founded by Romulus (754).	800	Olympus, of Phrygia, flutist, invents the Enharmonic scale.
	720	Archilochus, of Paros, singer, poet, and instrumentalist. Important improvements in the music of the Greeks.
	700	Tyrtæus, of Athens, poet, singer, and trumpeter, composes war-songs for Sparta against Messenia.
	650	Terpander, of Lesbos, lyrist, flutist, and composer. Important progress in the music of the Greeks.
Circumnavigation of the coast of Africa under Necho, King of Egypt (615).	625	Arion, of Lesbos, kithara-player, singer and poet, invents the Dithyrambs, or hymns of Bacchus, and improves the chorus-singing. He is recorded to have healed sick persons by means of music. The same is also recorded of Menias, a Greek musician, who lived about this time.
Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, carries the Jews into captivity.	600	Stesichorus, of Sicily, composes choruses with instrumental accompaniment, besides airs to his poems. Alcæus, of Mytilene, singer, lyrist, and poet.
Solon, law-giver, in Athens.		Sappho, of Mytilene, female singer, lyrist, and poetess. To her is ascribed the invention of a stringed instrument called Barbitos.
The seven sages of Greece:—Solon, Thales, Periander, Cleobulus, Pittacus, Bias, Chilo.	570	The Romans, under the King Servius Tullius, introduce trumpets and horns of metal into their army.
Cyrus conquers Lydia and dethrones Crœsus. Confucius, Chinese philosopher. Zoroaster in Persia.	550	About this time was performed in Athens, under Thespis, the first tragedy with choruses set to music.
Tarquinius Superbus, the last King of Rome, is expelled. Rome becomes a Republic (510). Cambyses conquers Egypt (509).	530	Pythagoras, of Samos, philosopher, studies music in Egypt, founds in Greece a great School of music based upon mathematical principles; invents the monochord for measuring the sound; ascertains the harmonious Triad, the diatonic intervals, etc.
	500	Lasus, of Achaia, writes treatises on the theory of music.
Battle of Marathon, in which the Greeks, commanded by Miltiades, defeat the Persians (490).		Æschylus, born at Athens about 525, singer and writer of Tragedies. Simonides, of Ceos, born in 557, died 468, lyrist and poet.
Xerxes invades Greece (487).		Pindar, born at Thebes, in Boeotia, about the year 520, flutist, lyrist, poet, and composer. Many hymns, odes, etc.
Battle of Salamis in which Themistocles defeats the Persians (480).		Corinna, of Tanagra, in Boeotia, female singer and poetess. Several times gains the victory in contest with Pindar at the public games at Thebes.
Leonidas. Themistocles banished from Athens (471).		Anacreon, of Teos, lyric poet and musician. To him is attributed the invention of several stringed instruments.
Cimon defeats the Persians (466).		The Greeks had about this time several accomplished players on the kithara, flute, and other instruments, who introduced new and brilliant passages and embellishments into their performances.
Pericles, Greek General and orator. Herodotus, historian. Phidias, sculptor. Hippocrates, physician.	450	The highest degree of perfection of the dramatic art in Greece through Æschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and through the musical composer Damon, the singer Agathon, etc., at Athens. Democritus, of Abdera, philosopher, writes seven books on music.
Commencement of the Peloponnesian war between the Athenians and Spartans which lasts twenty-seven years (431). Socrates (469-399).	430	Lysander, of Sycion, invents a more artistic instrumental accompaniment to vocal music. Alexandrides extends the compass of the Greek wind instruments.
Alcibiades. Brennus, Chief of the Gauls, burns & sacks Rome (390).	400	Timotheus, of Miletus, Asia Minor, singer, kithara-player and poet, composes many works, and improves the lyre. Plato, philosopher, in his works treats also on music.
Demosthenes (384-322).	360	About this time, the first dramatic performances with music in Rome.
Diogenes (350). Alexander, the Great, son of Philip of Macedonia (333).	350	Aristoteles, of Stagira, born in 384, philosopher and musician. In his works much about music.
Ptolemy I., King of Egypt, encourages the cultivation of sciences and arts in his kingdom, & founds a library in Alexandria.	310	Aristoxenus, of Tarentum, born in 340, philosopher and musician, founds a new School of music which is in opposition to the teaching of Pythagoras, generally accepted until that time. He writes many treatises on music. Division of the musicians into Musici, or the followers of Aristoxenus, who derive the rules of music from its effect upon the ear,—and Canonici, or the followers of Pythagoras, who derive them from mathematical laws.
Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, is defeated by the Romans (275).	300	About this period the Greeks made many improvements in the construction of their musical instruments.
		Euclides, of Alexandria, born in 323, died 283, mathematician, writes on the theory of music and acoustics.
The first Punic war (264-241). The second Punic war (218-202).	250	Archimedes, of Syracuse, born in 287, died 212, mathematician, is said to have invented the hydraulic organ.
Scipio defeats Hannibal in Africa (202).		Ctesibius, of Alexandria, improves the pneumatic organ and alters it into a hydraulic organ. His son Hero still further perfects the instrument and describes it.
The first Macedonian war (200). The first library at Rome (167).	200	Aristeas, of Greece, a kithara-player, writes a treatise on kithara-playing.
Corinth and Carthage destroyed by the Romans (146). Greeceand North Africa become Roman provinces.	150	Polybius, of Megalopolis in Arcadia, born about the year 204, historian, writes a treatise on the influence of music upon civilization.
Civil war in Rome (88). The Romans under Julius Cæsar invade Britain (55).	100	Alypius, of Alexandria, writes on musical notation by means of the letters of the Greek alphabet.
Julius Cæsar assassinated in the Senate-house (44). Cicero killed (43). Virgilius. Antonius and Cleopatra defeated (31).	50	Hermogenes (Marcus Tigellius), singer and instrumentalist of Greece, settles in Rome.
Augustus, Roman Emperor (30). Horace. Mæcenas.	30	Diodorus Siculus, of Agyrium in Sicily, historian, gives some account of the oldest music of the Egyptians and Greeks.
Titus Livius, historian. Ovidius, poet.	10	Vitruvius (Pollio M.), born in Italy, architect, writes on musical subjects.
	a.d.
Hermann in Germany defeats Varus (9).	1	Gradual decay of the Greek Music.
The Romans under the Emperor Claudius invade England (40). London founded by the Romans (49).		The first Christian hymns (St. Matthew, chap. XXVI., v. 30; St. Mark, chap. XIV., v. 26; I Corinth., chap. XIV., v. 15; Ephes., chap. V., v. 19; Coloss., chap. III., v. 16; St. James, chap. V., v. 13, etc.).
	50	Pliny the Elder, born at Verona in the year 27, died in 79. Several books on music.
Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus (70). Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius (79).	60	Nero, Roman Emperor from a.d. 54 to 68, musician, singer, flutist, lyrist. He sings and plays in public, and is said to have maintained 5000 musicians in his pay.
Tacitus, historian. Juvenal, poet. Martialis, poet. Pliny the Younger. Trajan, Roman Emperor (98).	80	Plutarchus, born at Chaeronea in Boeotia, about the year 40, biographer and philosopher. Several musical essays.
Introduction of Christianity into Ireland by St. Patrick (110).	100	Ptolemaeus (Claudius) born at Pelusium in Egypt, about the year 70, mathematician, geographer, astronomer, and musician. In his writings he endeavours to reconcile the musical theories of Pythagoras and Aristoxenus. He reduces the fifteen Modes of the Greeks to seven.
Fingal (Ossian) in Scotland (200). Persecutions of the Christians during the third century. Artaxerxes, king of Persia, conquers the Parthians, & founds the dynasty of the Sassanidæ (226).	200	From about the year 150 to 200, above a dozen authors are known in whose works some account is given of the music of the ancients.
Probus, Roman Emperor, causes the vine to be planted on the banks of the Rhine and the Moselle (276).	250	The Fathers of the Church who give the first account of the sacred songs of the early Christians are Tertullian, Clemens of Alexandria, and Origen. Their writings date from the first half of the third century. The Christian communities had already during the first century in their religious observances, which in the beginning were held secretly, hymns sung alternately by a single voice and a chorus in unison. The melodies of the hymns were probably similar to those of the Greeks. At all events, the Modes in which they were sung, and the notation by letters of the alphabet, had been derived from the Greeks.
Constantine, Emperor, is converted to Christianity, andtransfers the seat of his empire from Rome to Byzantine, henceforth called Constantinople (330).	330	Silvester I., Pope, institutes in Rome the first school for Church-song.
Division of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western (364). Kingdoms formed by the Ostrogoths and Visigoths. The Huns migrate from Asia to Europe, and come in collision with the Goths (375).	350	Damasus, Bishop of Rome, born at Madrid in the year 314, introduces in Church the antiphonal singing of the Psalms by two choirs, and regulates the intoning of the Mass. St. Basilius (died 379) promotes sacred song in the Eastern (Greek-Christian) Church, and describes the Church-music of his time.
Theodosius the Great, Emperor of the Eastern Empire (379).	380	St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, from 374 to 397, born about 333 in Gallia, died in 398. Introduces the Ambrosian Song of Praise (Te Deum laudamus), composes several hymns, and promotes the singing of the Psalms, in opposition to the old Greek music.
The Visigoths, or Goths of the West, under Alaric, invade Italy (400).	400	St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, born 354 at Tagasta, in Africa, died 430. In his works, writes much about music, and especially recommends Psalm-singing.
Rome is sacked and burnt by Alaric (410).		The Fathers of the Church, St. Chrysostom, Cyprian, and Hieronymus, with others, uphold the cultivation of Church-song, which is discouraged by many.
The Anglo-Saxons arrive in Britain (449). The Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy in Britain (457).	420	Macrobius writes on music according to the system of Pythagoras.
	500	Boethius, born 470 in Rome, died 526; writes several treatises on the music of the Ancients.
Silkworms are introduced into Europe from China (550).	550	Cassiodorus (Magnus Aurelius) born 480, died 575; musical author.
The Picts are converted to Christianity (565). The Visigoths, or Goths of the West, conquer the greater part of Spain (580). Foundation of the Kingdom of Mercia by Crida (582).	590	Gregory the Great, Pope, 590 to 604, collects the Christian hymns, fixes the employment of them, improves the Singing Schools, appoints Cantores, Precentors, etc. The Gregorian Church-song used in place of the Ambrosian.
	596	St. Augustine, first Bishop of Canterbury, usually called the Apostle of the English, introduces into England with the Christian religion, the Church-song. Church-music contributes much to the diffusion of Christianity in heathen countries.
Mohammed, founder of a Religion (604). The Pope in Rome acknowledged as the head of the Church (607). University of Cambridge founded (631).	600	St. Isidore, Archbishop of Seville, in Spain, born at Carthagena about 570, died 636. Promotes the improvement of Church-music, and writes treatises on music.
Conquests of the Arabs in Asia, as far as Hindustan. Jerusalem is taken by them (637). The Caliph Omar burns the Alexandrian library (640).	650	Jacob (Deacon), Stephan Eddi, Putta, Maban, and Acca (Bishop), were distinguished church-singers in England during the period from 620 to 700.
The Danes invade England (660). The Britons are driven into Wales (685).	660	Vitalianus, Pope, from 657 to 672, introduces the hydraulic organ into the Church for sounding the first tone of the Chorale as a guide to the singers. He sends two accomplished Roman singers to Gallia (France) for the purpose of improving the Church-song in that country.
Conquests of the Arabs in North Africa (688).	676	Johannes Damascenus, born at Damascus. Introduces in Church hymns, the melodies of which differ from the old Grecian.
The Saracens in Spain (713). Glass-painting & Mosaic in Italy (750).	700	Beda Venerabilis, born 673, died 735; an English Monk, to whom are attributed two important treatises on music.
Pepin, King of the Franks (752-768).		Benedict, an English Abbot, introduces chanting in choirs.
The Danes invade England (783). Harun al-Raschid, Caliph of Bagdad. Flourishing state of the sciences with the Arabs (786).	780	Alcuinus, or Albinus, an English Prelate, born 736, died 814; promotes Church-music.
Division of the Monarchy of Charlemagne (843).	800	Charlemagne, Emperor of Germany, introduces the Gregorian Church-song into all his dominions, and orders a collection to be made of the popular secular songs. Church organs come gradually into use.
Alfred the Great defeats the Danes in England (880).	850	Notker, a Benedictine Monk of St. Gallen, in Germany, composes sacred songs called Sequentias Missales, which are introduced in the churches.
	886	Friar John of St. David's, the first Professor of Music at the University of Oxford, appointed by Alfred the Great.
Foundation of the University of Oxford by Alfred the Great (900). Foundation of the Kingdom of Hungary by the Magyars (about 900). University of Cambridge restored (915). Institution of Free-Masons in England (924).	900	Hucbald, Monk of St. Amand, in Flanders, born about 840, died 932. First attempt to accompany an air with several voices in harmony. Notation, consisting of the syllables of the words placed in different positions between lines. The signs used for the words placed in different positions between lines. The signs used for the purpose during the three preceding centuries were called Numæ.
The Russians, under Wladimir the Great, embrace Christianity (988).	950	St. Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, introduces organs into English churches.
Poland becomes a Kingdom (1000). William of Normandy invades England (1066). The Moors in Spain (1091). Peter the Hermit. The first Crusade (1095).	1030	Guido of Arezzo, a Benedictine Monk at Pomposa, born about 990 in Arezzo, died 1050. Improves the method of singing in use at his time, and the notation of Hucbald; designates the tones by the letters of the alphabet. He is supposed to be the inventor of the Solmisation of the Hexachord, or scale of six sounds, etc.
War between England and France (1113). Frederick I., called Barbarossa, in Germany (1152). The Sultan Saladin conquers Egypt (1187).	1100	Notation.—During the twelfth century originated our musical notation, the inventor of which is unknown. The first attempts in Counterpoint led to the employment of notes of different value (Mensural and Figural Notes). However, these innovations did not come into general practical use until about the year 1200.
Magna Charta, or the Charter of English Liberty (1215).	1200	The most popular instruments of the Middle Ages were the Psalterium, Harp, Rotta, Viol, Lute, Organistrum, Regals, Recorder, Sackbut, Shalm, etc.
Distinguished Troubadours and Minnesänger during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries:— Guillaume IX., Count of Poitou; Blondel, with Richard Cœur de Lion; Sordello of Mantua, Peyrols, Bertrand de Lorm, Arnold of Maraviglia, Heinrich von Veldeck, Wather von der Vogelweide, Reimar der Aeltere, Reimar der Zweter, Ulrich von Lichtenstein, Heinrich von Morungen, Wolfram von Eschenbach, Hartmann von der Aue, Gottfried von Strassburg, Conrad von Würzburg, Johann Hadlaub.	1207	Contest of the Minnesänger at the Wartburg, in Saxony. The Minnesänger, who flourished in Germany, especially during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, were identical with the Troubadours, or singers of secular, amorous, and martial ditties, which they accompanied with the harp, cither, guitar, or some other instrument. The original home of the Troubadours was Provence, in the South of France, where they originated about the beginning of the eighth century. Subsequently, at the time of the German Minnesänger, there were also Troubadours in Italy, Spain and England. Among them were many noblemen, and even princes.
The Kingdom of Granada founded by the Moors in Spain (1238). Foundation of the University of Vienna (1237).	1220	Franco of Cologne, the first known musical author who treats circumstantially on the new theory of Harmony, and who, by expounding it systematically, greatly contributes to its diffusion. (Forkel, Fétis, and some other musical historians, maintain that Franco of Cologne lived during the second half of the eleventh century.)
Cimabue, Giotto, Italian painters (1240). Termination of the Crusades (1248).	1240	Odington (Walter), an English monk, writes on music in a manner similar to that of Franco of Cologne, in Germany.
Parliament of Great Britain. First assembly of the Commons as a confirmed representation (1265). Venice and Genoa are powerful.	1260	Hieronymus von Mæhren, in France, writes on the theory of music.
	1280	Adam de la Hale, of Arras, in France, writes compositions in four-part harmony, dramatic pieces, with songs, etc. He lived in Provence.
Invention of Gunpowder (1292). Italian poets and authors: Dante Alighieri (1265-1321); Petrarca (1304-1374); Boccaccio (1313-1375).	1290	Ægidius, of Zamora, a Spanish monk, writes on the invention of musical instruments.
Disunion in the Church. Popes in Avignon (1378).	1300	Gradual diffusion of the theory of Harmony, especially through Marchetto di Padua, about 1310, in Italy;—and through Jean de Muris, about 1325, in France.
The Turks victorious in Hungary (1396).	1390	Gerson (Johannes), a French monk, born 1363, died 1429. Musical author. Commencement of the period in which appeared numerous sacred vocal compositions, viz: Masses, Motetts (English Anthems), Offertories, Hymns, Psalms, Madrigals, etc. The Madrigals were in the form of the Motett, but often had secular words. Instrumental music was still insignificant.
Masaccio, Fiesole, Italian painters (1400). Conquest of France by Henry V., King of England (1420). Charles VII., of France (1422-1461).	1400	Dufay (Guillaume), born about 1350 at Chimay, in Belgium, died 1432. The first Contrapuntist, properly speaking. Purer harmony than previously. Application in the notation of the White notes, which had been already invented before his time. Many Church compositions.
Jeanne d'Arc burnt (1430). England loses all her possessions in France, except Calais (about 1440). Invention of Printing (1440).		Binchois (Egide), born in Picardy, contributes to the improvement of harmony and of musical notation. Composes much vocal music.
Constantinople taken by the Turks (1453).	1450	Dunstable (John), born about 1400 in Scotland, died 1458. Improves the harmony and the musical notation.
Watches invented at Nürnberg (1477). Inquisition in Spain (1480). Burgundy and Provence incorporated with France (1481). The Medici govern in Florence; flourishing growth of the arts & sciences (1402-1537).	1470	Ockeghem, or Ockenheim (Johann), born about 1430 in Hainault, Belgium; died 1513. Founder of the newer Netherlandish School, improver of harmony, and composer of Church music. Obrecht, or Hobrecht (Jacob), born about 1430 in Holland. Many compositions for the Church. Bernhard, a German residing in Venice, is said to have invented the organ pedal.
America discovered by Columbus (1492). Macchiavelli, historian (1469-1527). Ludovico Ariosto, poet (1474-1533).	1490	Déprés (Josquin des Prés), born about 1450 in France, died about 1521. Pupil of Ockeghem. Many Masses and other compositions for the Church. Tinctor (Jean), born about 1450 at Nivelles, died about 1520. Founder of a School in Italy. Many Church compositions.
Leonardo da Vinci, painter (1444-1519). Tiziano Vecelli, painter (1477-1576). Rafael Sanzio, painter (1483-1520).		Gafforio (Franchino), born 1451 at Lodi, died 1522. Writer on the theory of music, and promoter of new rules of harmony. Adam von Fulda, born about 1450 in Germany. Writes a treatise on the newly-established theory of music, and composes music for the Church.
Correggio (1494-1534). Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528). Newfoundland, the first British Colony in America, discovered by Cabot (1497).		Towards the end of the fifteenth century Chairs of Professorship for music were instituted in different towns of Italy, especially in Milan and Naples.
Copernicus, astronomer (1473-1543).		In the beginning of the sixteenth century the Netherlandish music attains its highest reputation in Italy (at the time of the Popes Julius II. and Leo X.), in Spain, France, and Germany.
Zwingli in Switzerland (1519). Gustav Wasa, King of Sweden (1523).	1500
Henry VIII., King (1509-1547).	1502	Petrucci (Ottaviano), of Fossombrone in Italy, invents the printing of musical notation with movable types.
The highest degree of perfection of the art of painting in Italy.	1520	Willaert (Hadrian), born about 1490, in Flanders, died 1563. Lived in Rome and Venice. Founder of the Venetian School. Composer of the first Masses for six and seven different voices, of Masses for two and three choruses, etc.
The Netherlandish School of Painting, founded by Johann van Eyk, about 1350:—Floris, Stradan, De Vos, Spranger, Peter & Franz Porbus, Steenvyk, Vanbort, P. & J. Breughel, Rubens (1577-1640). Snyders, Momper, David Teniers, De Crayer, Gerhard & Daniel Segers, Jordans, Rombouts, Anton van Dyk (1598-1641). The Dutch School of Painting, founded by Lucas of Leyden, born 1494:—Van Veen, Bloemart, Poelenburg, Wynants, Vertange, Hanesberge, etc. Roman School of Painting; pupils of Rafael:— Giulio Romano, Penni il Fattore, Bagnacavallo, Del Vaga, Caravaggio, Gemigniani, Garofalo, etc. Venetian School of Painting; pupils of Titian:—Del Piombo, Palma Vecchio, Lotto, Bordone, Pordenone, Schiavone, Bassano, Tintoretto, Poalo Veronese. Florentine School of Painting; pupils of Da Vinci:—Luini, Salaino, Melzo, Fra Bartolomeo, Del Sarto, Peruzzi, Razzi, Michel-Angelo.	1530	Aaron (Pietro), born about 1480 in Florence. Contrapuntist, writer on the theory of music, and composer of Church music. Luther (Martin), born 1483 at Eisleben, in Germany, died 1546. Composes Chorales, and promotes congregational singing. Alterations in the old Church-songs for the Reformed Church. Introduction in German Churches of Chorales in the German language. Walther (Johann), born about 1490 in Saxony, died about 1555. German Mass, many Chorales, etc. Senfl (Ludwig), born about 1490, at Basle in Switzerland, died about 1560. Masses, Motetts, Chorales, etc. Agricola (Martin), born 1486 in Silesia, died 1556. Many vocal compositions, and a treatise on musical instruments. Luscinius (Ottomar), properly Nachtigall, born 1487 at Strassburg, died about 1540. Treatises on music and on the musical instruments of his time. Glarean (Heinrich Lorit), born 1488 in Switzerland, died 1563. Many essays on the History and Theory of Music. Festa (Costanzo), born about 1490 at Rome. Many Motetts and other Church music. Regarded as the precursor of Palestrina.
	1540	Berchem (Jacob), called Giachetto di Mantua, born 1499 at Antwerp, died about 1580. Many Masses, Motetts, etc. Gombert (Nicolas), born about 1500 in the Netherlands, died about 1570. Many Masses, Motetts, and other sacred and secular compositions for four, five, and six different voices. Arcadelt (Jacques), born about 1500 in the Netherlands, died about 1570. Teacher in Rome. Many Masses, Motetts, Madrigals, etc. Clement (Jacques), called Clemens non Papa, born about 1500 in Flanders, died 1566. Masses and other sacred compositions.
The Order of Jesuits founded by Ignaz Loyola (1540). The Turks conquer Tripoli (1551). Death of Rabelais (1553). Philip II., King of Spain (1556). Foundation of the University of Jena (1558). Holbein, painter (1494-1554). Calais is lost to England in the reign of Mary (1558).	1550	Goudimel (Claude), born 1510 in Flanders, died about 1572. Many Psalms, Motetts, and other sacred compositions, and also secular music. Much progress in Harmony. Founder of a Music School in Rome. Morales (Christoforo), born about 1510 at Seville in Spain, lived in Rome. Many Masses, etc. Est (Michael), born about 1510 in England. Many Psalms and Madrigals. Tallis (Thomas), born 1520 in England, died about 1585. Many sacred compositions. Lossius (Lucas), born 1508 in Germany, died 1582. Many Chorales, a treatise on music, etc.
Queen Elizabeth (1558-1603). English authors: Spenser, poet (1553-1598). Francis Bacon (1561-1626).	1560	Rore (Cyprian), called Vanrore, born 1516 at Malines, died 1565. Pupil of Willaert, in Venice. Many sacred and secular vocal compositions. Waelrant (Hubert), born 1517 in the Netherlands, died 1595. Many Church compositions. Improvement in the Solmisation.
Shakespeare (1564-1616). Marlow, Green, Beaumont, Fletcher, Massinger:— Dramatic poets and contemporaries of Shakespeare. Calvin in Geneva (1565).		Lassus (Orlandus), properly Roland de Latre, born 1520 at Mons, in Hainault, died 1594. A great number of Church compositions of every kind, of which 1572 are known. Kerle (Jacob), born about 1520 in Flanders. Many Masses, etc. Zarlino (Giuseppe), born 1519 at Venice, died about 1590. Many Church compositions. Great progress in Harmony. Several treatises on the Theory of Music.
Hans Sachs, Meistersänger (1494-1576). Tycho Brahe, Astronomer (1546-1601). The Counts Egmont & Horn beheaded at Brussels (1568).		Palestrina (Giovanni Pierluigi di), born 1524 in Palestrina, died 1594. Reform of the Italian Church music by means of purer harmony. Ennobling of the rude Netherlandish style. Many Masses, Hymns, Motetts, Litanies, Offertories, etc.—Palestrina's celebrated Mass, known as Missa Papæ Marcelli, which was performed in Rome in the year 1565, had the effect of altering the opinion of many of the ecclesiastics who at the Council of Trent, in 1562, advocated the banishment of all Figural music from the Church.
The first Puritans and Presbyterians (1571). Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572). First circumnavigation of the world, by Drake (1577).	1570	Faber (Heinrich), born 1525 at Brunswick, in Germany, died 1598. Church compositions, and a treatise on music. Lejeune (Claude), born about 1540 in the Netherlands, died about 1600. Masses, Psalms, etc. Nanini (Giovanni Maria), born about 1540 at Vallerano, in Italy, died 1607. Teacher of Counterpoint; many Motetts for eight different voices, and other Church compositions.
North-America English. Walter Raleigh (1584). Portugal is conquered by the Spaniards in 1581, and remains a Spanish Province until 1640. The Netherlands become independent (1581). The Gregorian Calendar introduced into all the Roman Catholic States of Europe (1582). Elizabeth, Queen of England, causes Mary, Queen of Scots, to be beheaded at Fotheringay Castle (1587). Defeat of the Spanish Armada in the English Channel (1588).	1580	Morley (Thomas), born about 1540 in England, died 1604. Madrigals and other vocal compositions. Instruction book on music. Opera.—About the year 1580, a number of professional musicians and amateurs associated in the house of Giovanni Bardi, Count of Vernio, at Florence, with the object of reviving in the drama the musical declamation of the ancient Greeks. To this association belonged the composers Emilio del Cavalieri, Giacomo Peri, Giulio Caccini, and the poet Ottavio Rinuccini. Their exertions resulted in the production of the first Lyric Opera, called 'Dafne,' the poetry of which was by Rinuccini, and which was performed at Florence in the year 1594. Soon followed the first Tragic Opera, 'Euridice,' the poetry of which being by Rinuccini, and the music by Peri and Caccini. The next Operas were 'Il Satiro' and 'La Disperazione di Filano,' both with music by Cavalieri. Meanwhile, Orazio Vecchi attempted to compose a kind of Comic Opera, entitled 'L'Anfiparnasso, Commedia Armonica,' which was performed at Modena in the year 1594. The songs of these operas partook of the character of the recitative, and they were accompanied by a few instruments.
Janson, of Middlebourg, invents spectacles and telescopes (1590). Torquato Tasso (1544-1595).	1590	Gabrieli (Giovanni), born about 1550 at Venice, died 1612. Many Church compositions. Marenzio (Luca), born about 1550 at Brescia, died 1594. Motetts, Madrigals, etc. Bird (William), born 1546 in England, died 1623. Masses, Graduales, Madrigals.
First Edition of Bacon's 'Essays' published (1597). Edict of Nantes. Religious Liberty (1598).		Weelkes (Thomas), born about 1550 in England. Madrigals and other vocal compositions. Eccard (Johann), born about 1545 in Thuringia, Germany. Pupil of Orlando di Lasso. Many Church songs. Gallus (Johann Peter), properly Händl, born about 1550 at Krain, in Austria, died 1591. Many sacred songs.
Incorporation by Royal Charter of the English East India Company (1600). Lopez de Vega, dramatic poet, in Spain (1562-1635). James VI. of Scotland, son of Mary Stuart, succeeds Queen Elizabeth of England as James I. (1603). First French Colony in Canada (1604). First permanent British settlement in North America, formed by "the London Company" under charter from James I. (1607).	1600	Vittoria (Tomaso Ludovico della), born about 1560 in Spain, died about 1608. Many Church compositions. Dowland (John), born 1562 in England, died 1615. Virtuoso on the lute. Many vocal compositions. Bull (John), born 1563 in England, died 1622. Organist. Vocal compositions and Organ pieces. Vulpius (Melchior), born about 1560 in Germany, died 1616. Chorales and other sacred songs. Calvisius (Sethus), born 1556 in Thuringia, Germany, died 1615. Many Church compositions, and also theoretical works. Schultz (Hieronymus), called Prætorius, born 1560 at Hamburg, died 1629. Motetts, etc. From about 1600 to 1725, the celebrated Violin Makers of Cremona, in Italy:—Amati, Guarneri, Stradivari, etc.
Bacon publishes his Advancement of Learning (1605).		The most popular instruments about the year 1600 were: The lute, cither, spinet, virginal, clavichord, flûte-à-bec, cornet, etc.
Guy Fawkes Gunpowder Plot (1605). Third recorded appearance of the comet afterwards known as Halley's Comet (1607).	1605	Viadana (Ludovico), born 1560 in Italy, died 1625. Many Church compositions, and the first Church concertos and Solo songs for the Church. Viadana is said to have invented, in the year 1605, the thorough-bass, or indication of the Harmony by marking the bass with figures; but this invention is also ascribed to Ottavio Catalano, born about 1595 in Sicily.
Thermometers are invented about this time by Drebbel, of Alkmaer, Paulo Sarpi, and Sanctorio. Cervantes, author of Don Quixote, etc. (1547-1616). English poets:—Milton, Dryden, Butler, Otway, Prior, Cowley, Denham. The telescope is first applied to astronomical purposes by Galileo, at Padua. Discoveries of the satellites of Jupiter, and the spots in the sun (1610).	1610	Monteverde (Claudio), born 1565 at Cremona, died 1649. Masses, Madrigals, and also secular songs. The most important steps towards the development of the modern music by new licenses in the Harmony. Invention of the Tremolo of the violins, etc. Cerone (Dominico Pietro), born 1566 at Bergamo, died 1620. Many theoretical treatises. Prætorius (Michael), born 1571 in Thuringia, Germany, died 1621. Many Masses, Psalms, Hymns, and a musical treatise. Walliser (Christoph Thomas), born about 1571 at Strassburg, died 1648. Church compositions, and a treatise on Harmony and on the Fugue.
	1620	Frescobaldi (Gieronimo), born about 1580 in Italy, died 1640. Organist. Many Church compositions, Madrigals, Organ compositions, Fugues, Ricercari, etc.
Tea is brought from India by the Dutch; it is introduced into England in 1666.		Vieira (Antonio), born about 1580 in Portugal, died in 1650. Many Church compositions for eight different voices. Allegri (Gregorio), born about 1580 at Rome, died 1652. Many Church compositions. The Miserere of the Vatican.
The present authorized English version of the Bible is published, and is called "King James's Bible" (1611). Settlement of New York, in North America, by the Dutch (1614). Emigration of the Puritans to New England; they found New Plymouth (1620).		Carissimi (Giacomo), born about 1582 at Padua, died about 1673. Many Masses, some of which are for twelve different voices, and other Church compositions. Improver of the Recitative. The first important Oratorios and Cantatas in Italy. Kapsberger (Johann Hieronymus), born about 1575 in Germany, died 1650. Lived in Italy. Church compositions, and Instruction books for playing the Lute and the Guitar. Gibbons (Orlando), born 1583 at Cambridge, died 1625. Many Church compositions, Anthems, Madrigals, etc.
Charles I. succeeds James I., King of England, after the death of the latter, in 1625. Disputes between King Charles I. and his Parliament. Civil war begins in 1642. Last general assembly of the Hanseatic cities of Germany. Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen continue united.	1627	Schütz (Heinrich von), called Sagittarius, born 1585 in Germany, died 1672. Many Motetts, Psalms, and also Operas. In the year 1627 the Opera Dafne, by Rinuccini ([see above, date 1580]), having been translated into German by Opitz, and composed anew by Schütz, was performed in Dresden as the first German Opera. Mazzocchi (Domenico), born about 1590 at Castellana, in Italy. Oratorios, Madrigals for five different voices with instrumental accompaniments. Introduced signs of expression in the notation.
Kepler, Astronomer (1571-1630). Gustavus Adolphus dies on the battle-field at Lutzen (1632). Wallenstein assassinated at Eyer (1634). Rubens, Vandyck, Domenichino, painters (1620). Ben Jonson, dramatist (1620).	1630	Mazzocchi (Virgilio), brother of the preceding, born about 1595, died 1646. Many Church compositions. The first development of the melody in the present sense. Doni (Giovanni Battista), born 1593 at Florence, died 1674. Treatises on the music of the ancient Greeks and on that of his time. Jenkins (John), born 1592 in Kent, England, died 1678. Virtuoso on the Viola da Gamba. Many compositions for his instrument and also vocal music.
Lope de Vega, Spanish writer (1620). Galileo is condemned by the Inquisition of Rome as guilty of heresy for upholding the Copernican system, and compelled to abjure it (1633). Richelieu founds the French Academy (1635).		Schein (Johann Hermann), born 1586 in Germany, died 1630. Chorales, Madrigals, Secular Songs, etc. Scheidt (Samuel), born 1587 at Halle, in Germany, died 1654. Contrapuntist. Many Church compositions as well as pieces for the Organ and Clavichord. Mersenne (Marie), born 1588 in France, died 1640. Treatises on Harmony, Acoustics, and Musical History.
Death of Cardinal Richelieu (1642). Louis XIV. (styled Dieu-donné), King of France (1643-1715).	1640	Lawes (Henry), born 1600 in England, died 1662. Psalms and Secular songs.
The Pendulum is applied to clocks by Richard Harris and the younger Galileo (1641).		Kircher (Pater Athanasius), born 1602 at Fulda, in Germany, died 1680. Several treatises on music.
Charles I. beheaded (1649).	1645	The first Italian Opera in Paris, ordered from Italy by Cardinal Mazarin.
Oliver Cromwell, Protector of the Commonwealth (1653). Portugal takes possession of the Brazils (1654). Calderon de la Barca, dramatic poet in Spain (1601-1687). Dutch and Flemish Painters:—Eykens, Sachtleven, Rembrandt, Douw Swanevelt, Wouvermann, Berghem, Paul Potter, etc.	1650	Sabattini (Galeazzo), born about 1610 in Italy. Litanies, Madrigals, and other vocal music. Dumont (Henri), born 1610 at Liége, Belgium, died 1684. Masses and other Church compositions. Innovation of the employment of instrumental accompaniments to the Mass. Child (William), born 1608 at Bristol, in England, died 1696. Psalms and other sacred vocal music, and secular songs. Simpson (Christopher), born about 1610 in England, died about 1670. Instruction book on the Viola da Gamba, on the Theory of Music, etc.
Restoration of Charles II. (1660).		Hammerschmiedt (Andreas), born 1611 in Bohemia, died 1675. Many Masses and other sacred compositions.
Spain takes possession of Havannah (1662). The French, commanded by Turenne, victorious upon the Rhine (1663).		Cesti (Marc-Antonio), born in 1620 at Florence, died 1681. Nine Operas. Progress in the development of operatic music. Eccles (John), born about 1620 in England. Several Operas, songs, etc.
Plague in London (1665). Great fire of London (1666).		Lock (Matthew), born about 1620 in England, died 1677. Sacred music and dramatic compositions.
Flourishing state of France owing to her industry & commerce (1670). The Turks in Hungary invade Poland (1670).	1670	Stradella (Alessandro), born 1645 at Naples, died 1678. An Oratorio and some Operas. Kerl (Johann Caspar von), born about 1625 in Saxony, died about 1690. Masses and organ compositions. Meibom (Marcus), born 1626 in Schleswig, died 1711. Many Treatises on the Music of the Ancient Greeks.
Death of Molière (1673). De Ruyter, the Dutch Admiral, dies (1675).	1672	Lulli (Giovanni Battista), born 1633 at Florence, died 1687 at Paris. Founder of the older French operatic music. Composed 19 Operas and 26 ballets. His first French Opera was performed at Paris in the year 1672.
William Penn founds Pennsylvania (1681). Vienna is besieged by the Turks (1683). Death of Corneille (1684). The Huguenots expelled from France (1685). Peter the Great, Czar of Russia (from 1682 to 1725).	1680	Frohberger (Johann Jacob), born 1637 at Halle, Germany, died 1695. Organist. Many compositions for the organ and the clavichord. Buxtehude (Dietrich), born about 1640 in Germany, died 1707. Many Organ compositions. Gasparini (Michael-Angelo), born at Lucca, in Italy, during the second half of the seventeenth century, died in 1732. Many Operas. Founder of a School of Singing at Venice. Steffani (Agostino), called Gregoria Piva, born about 1650, at Venice, died 1730. Masses and other sacred compositions, Operas, vocal duets.
William III., Prince of Orange, and Mary (daughter of James I.) his wife, declared King and Queen of England (1688). Charles XII. King of Sweden from 1697 to 1718. Alsace becomes French (1697). Death of Racine (1699). Locke, philosopher, English (1632-1704).	1690	Baj (Tomaso), born about 1650, at Bologna, died 1714. Many sacred compositions. A Miserere for the Vatican, which is sometimes performed instead of that by Allegri. Corelli (Arcangelo), born 1653 at Fusignano, in Italy, died 1713. Violinist. Many concertos, etc. Blow (John), born 1648 at Nottingham, died 1708. Many anthems, psalms, etc. Purcell (Henry), born 1658 in London, died 1695. About 17 English Operas, secular songs, anthems and other sacred compositions. Krieger (Adam), born 1646 at Nürnberg, died 1725. Operas, etc.
Charles XII., King of Sweden, at war with Denmark, Poland, and Russia. He forces the King of Denmark to conclude a peace with him, and defeats the Russians on the banks of the Narva (1700).	1700	Scarlatti (Alessandro), born 1659 at Trapani, in Sicily, died 1725. Composed 115 Operas, 200 Masses, several Oratorios, many sacred and secular cantatas, etc. Invention of the Recitative with orchestral accompaniment; of a greater combination of orchestral instruments than hitherto; of the Da-Capo, or repetition of the theme; and of several other essential innovations.
Queen Anne (1702).		Desmarets (Henri), born 1662 at Paris, died 1741. About 8 Operas.
Battle of Blenheim, or Höchstadt, gained by the Duke of Marlborough & Prince Eugene over the French and Bavarians (1704). Gibraltar taken by the English (1707).		Brossard (Sébastien de), born 1660, probably at Strassburg, died 1730. Many Masses, a Dictionary of Music. Brossard's Dictionary, which was published in 1703, is generally regarded as the earliest work of its kind. Tinctor, however, already in the fifteenth century compiled a collection of the definitions of the musical terms in use at his time; and Janowka published at Prague a Musical Dictionary in Latin, two years previous to the appearance of Brossard's work, which is in French.
Union of England and Scotland by Treaty (1707). Peter the Great defeats Charles XII. at Pultowa (1709).		Fux (Johann Joseph), born 1660 in Austria, died about 1732. Composed 17 Operas, 26 Masses, 3 Requiems, 1 Stabat Mater, 10 Oratorios, above 170 other sacred compositions; likewise, instrumental pieces, a work on the theory of music (Gradus ad Parnassum), etc.
Herculaneum discovered (1711). Peace of Utrecht (1713).	1710	Gasparini (Francesco), born about 1665 at Lucca, died 1727. Many Operas, Cantatas, etc. Teacher in counterpoint of Domenico Scarlatti and Marcello.
Death of Fénélon (1715). Defoe, author of 'Robinson Crusoe.'		Lotti (Antonio), born about 1665 at Venice, died 1740. Nineteen Operas, many church compositions and madrigals.
Saunderson and Brook Taylor, English mathematicians.		Vivaldi (Antonio), born about 1670 at Venice, died about 1743. Twenty-six Operas, violin concertos, and many other instrumental pieces.
Prior, Congreve, and Parnell, English Poets. George, Elector of Hanover, becomes King of England, as George I. (1714).		Bononcini (Giovanni), born about 1672 at Modena, died 1750. Composed about 23 Operas. For a time rival of Handel in London. Couperin (François), born 1668 at Paris, died 1733. Organist. Many organ and clavecin (harpsichord) compositions.
Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Peterwardein in Austrian Slavonia (1716).		Keiser (Reinhard), born 1673 at Leipzig, died 1739. Many Operas, many Oratorios and other sacred compositions, etc. He is said to have composed 116 Operas, partly to German, and partly to Italian words.
Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Belgrade (1717).		Pepusch (Johann Christoph), born 1667 at Berlin, died 1732. Cantatas and other sacred music. Leveridge (Richard) born 1670 in London, died 1758. Operas and songs.
Charles XII., King of Sweden, is killed at the Siege of Frederickshall, in Norway (1718). English authors: Pope (1688-1744); Swift (1667-1744); Young (1684-1765); Thomson (1700-1748); Fielding (1707-1754); Johnson (1713-1784); Goldsmith (1728-1774); Sterne (1713-1768); Hogarth, painter (1698-1764). Death of the Duke of Marlborough, born 1650 (1722). Death of Peter the Great (1725). George II., King of Great Britain, succeeds his father, George I., who died, aged 68 (1727). Fahrenheit, improver of the thermometer (1724). Réaumur, improver of the thermometer (1731). The Jesuits are expelled from China (1724). Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Swift publishes his 'Gulliver's Travels' (1726).	1720	Caldara (Antonio), born 1678 at Venice, died 1763. Sixty-seven Operas, many Masses and other sacred compositions. Astorga (Emanuale), born 1681 at Palermo, Sicily, died 1736. Several Operas, a Requiem and many other sacred compositions. Geminiani (Francesco), born 1680 at Lucca, died 1762. Violinist. Many compositions for his instrument. Scarlatti (Domenico), son of Alessandro Scarlatti, born in 1683 at Naples, died about 1760. Clavicembalist. Many compositions for his instrument. Rameau (Jean Philippe), born 1683 at Dijon, died 1764. Composed 36 Operas, many motetts and other sacred vocal compositions, as well as pieces for the organ and for the clavecin (harpsichord). Several theoretical works. A new System of Harmony. Progress in operatic music. Mattheson (Johann), born 1681 at Hamburg, died 1764. Seven Operas, 24 Oratorios, several other sacred compositions, and a great many works on the theory and history of music. Telemann (Georg Philipp), born 1681 at Magdeburg, in Germany, died 1767. Composed 44 Operas, many Oratorios and other sacred compositions, secular instrumental pieces, etc. Heinichen (Johann David), born 1683 in Saxony, died 1729. Operas, sacred and secular compositions. Treatise on the Theory of Music. Walther (Johann Gottfried), born 1684 at Erfurt, died 1748. Organ compositions, chorales, and a Musical Dictionary. About this time, the first Pianofortes were constructed by Christofori, in Italy, and by Schröter, in Germany.
Pope publishes his 'Essay on Man' (1729). Thomson publishes his 'Seasons' (1730). Arbuthnot and Sir Hans Sloane, English physicians (1730). Le Sage, author of 'Gil Blas' (1730). Jonathan Swift, Dean of St. Patrick's, poet and miscellaneous writer (1730).	1730	Marcello (Benedetto), born 1686 at Venice, died 1739. Composed fifty Psalms, several Oratorios, Masses, etc. Porpora (Nicolo), born 1687 at Naples, died 1767. Great singing teacher. Composed fifty Operas, many Masses, etc. Tartini (Giuseppe) born 1692 at Pirano, died 1770. Violinist and composer. Author of a Treatise on Harmony. Leo (Leonardo), born 1694 at Naples, died 1756. Composed forty-eight Operas, several Oratorios, Masses, and other sacred music. He wrote for his Operas larger overtures than previous composers had done.
Harrison, an Englishman, constructs a chronometer of great precision (1735). His fourth chronometer is used at sea in 1764, and he receives a reward of £20,000. Frederick III., Elector of Brandenburg, and Duke of Prussia, in an assembly of the states, puts a crown upon his own head, and upon the head of his consort, and is proclaimed King of Prussia, by the title of Frederick I. (1701).		Carey (Henry), born about 1690 in England, died 1743. Many songs. He is supposed to have composed in the year 1740 the English national air of 'God save the King.' Handel (Georg Friedrich), properly Händel, born 1685 at Halle, died 1759 in London. Composed fifty-one Operas (forty-three having Italian words and eight having German words), twenty English Oratorios, many cantatas, motetts, anthems, a Mass, four Te Deums, concertos, instrumental compositions for the organ, harpsichord, etc. The concertos of that period consisted of orchestral pieces with or without an organ concertante; or of violin-quintetts with double-bass; or also of pieces for the harpsichord accompanied by a quartett of stringed instruments, etc.
German poets and authors:—Elias Schlegel, Gellert, Hagedorn, Rabener, Rammler, Kleist, Weisse, Bürger, Hölty, Stollberg, Voss, Gleim, Jacoby, Uz, Gerstenberg, Gotter, Claudius, Gessner.		During the eighteenth century, most of the German Opera composers of distinction wrote chiefly to Italian words. Every German town in which a Sovereign resided had an Italian Opera. The German art of singing began to flourish only about the year 1760. Even Mozart wrote but two Operas to German words. The German composers (Handel, Gluck, Hasse, Mozart, etc.) studied dramatic music in Italy.
Frederick William I, King of Prussia, son of Frederick I. (1713). First attempt of Steam Navigation, by Jonathan Hulls (1736). John Wesley, founder of the sect of Methodists (1730). George Whitfield, founder of the sect of Calvinistic Methodists, preaches in London in the open air (1738). The Methodist Society is fully established (1740).		Bach (Johann Sebastian), born 1685 at Eisenach, in Germany, died 1750 at Leipzig. Composed several Oratorios, many Masses, a great many motetts, cantatas, chorales, etc.; many compositions for the organ, clavichord, clavicembalo (harpsichord), and for the orchestra. The first book of his Preludes and Fugues for the clavichord, entitled 'Das Wohltemperirte Clavier,' dates from the year 1722, and the second book from the year 1740. He composed the Passion according to St. Matthew, about the year 1728; the great Mass in B minor, about 1734; the Art of Fugue, in the year 1748. Stölzel (Gottfried Heinrich), born 1690 in Bohemia, died 1749. Several Operas, Oratorios, Masses, and Treatises on the Theory and History of Music. Pergolesi (Giovanni Battista), born 1710 at Jesi, died 1736. Composed 7 Operas, a Stabat Mater, several Masses, offertories, etc.
Italian Painters of this period:—Rotari, Casanova, Landi, Grassi, Appiani, Bossi, Sabatelli, Ermini, Alvarez, Camoccini, etc. Frederick II., King of Prussia (from 1740 until 1786). First Silesian war (1740-1742). Second Silesian war (1744-1745).	1740	Durante (Francesco), born 1693 at Naples, died 1755. Composed Masses and other sacred music, secular madrigals, pieces for the clavicembalo, etc. Durante, was with Leo, the founder of the famous Neapolitan School. Feo (Francesco), born 1699 at Naples. Operas, Oratorios, Masses, Psalms. Feo is especially remarkable for being regarded as the master whom Gluck particularly admired and studied. Greene (Maurice), born 1698 in London, died 1755. Many sacred compositions and some English Operas.
Maria-Theresa, Empress of Germany, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia (1740). Francis I., Duke of Lorraine, marries Maria-Theresa, and is elected Emperor of Germany (1745). During the reign of Frederick II. or 'Frederick the Great,' the Prussian monarchy is made to rank among the first powers in Europe. Battle of Dettingen gained by George II. over the French (1743). The electric shock is discovered at Leyden (1745). German poets: Salis, Matthison, Pfeffel, Kind, Langbein, Seume, Schubert, Tiedge, etc. Lima and Callao are destroyed by an earthquake which buries 18,000 persons in the ruins (1746).		Quanz (Johann Joachim), born 1697 at Hanover, died 1773. Flute-player, and teacher of Frederick II. of Prussia. Many compositions, and an instruction book for the Flute. Graun (Carl Heinrich), born 1701 in Saxony, died 1759. Composed 30 Operas, several Oratorios, Masses, cantatas, etc. Hasse (Johann Adolf), born 1699 at Hamburg, died 1783. Composed 52 Operas, 11 Oratorios, several Masses, a Requiem, 4 Te Deums, various other sacred compositions, symphonies, sonatas for the clavichord, concertos, etc. Galuppi (Baldassaro), born 1703 at Venice, died 1785. Composed 55 Operas, several Masses, motetts, and other sacred music. Sammartini (Giovanni Battista), born about 1700 at Milan, died 1775. Many Masses and other Church music, many symphonies, quartetts, trios, and other instrumental compositions of every kind. Sammartini wrote about 2,800 works, and his style is considered as being the precursor of that of Joseph Haydn. From about the middle of the eighteenth century, the sonata-form in instrumental compositions (sonatas, symphonies, quartetts, etc.) becomes much developed, especially through Joseph Haydn.
Linnæus, naturalist (1750). The Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, and the Royal Society at Göttingen, are founded (1750).	1750	The flourishing period of the Italian operatic music dates from about the year 1700 to 1780. The most celebrated writers of libretti were Apostolo Zeno and Metastasio. The most celebrated female singers: Faustina, Cuzzoni, Mattei, Scotti, Grassi, Gabrieli, Agujari, Danci, Allegrante, Storace, etc.
Samuel Johnson commences the publication of his 'Rambler' (1750). Lady W. Montague, and Lord Chesterfield, miscellaneous writers (1750). New style introduced into England (1752).		The most celebrated male singers: Lovattini, Guarducci, Farinelli, Nicolini, Guadagni, Millico, Pacchiarotti, Morelli, Marchesi, Salimbeni, Crescentini, etc. Martini (Giovanni Battista), Padre, born 1706 at Bologna, died 1784. Many sacred compositions, History of Music, School of Harmony, and other literary works on music. Perez (Davide), born 1711 at Naples, died 1778. Composed 31 Operas.
Death of Montesquieu (1755). Great earthquake at Lisbon (1755).		Jomelli (Nicolo), born 1714 at Aversa, died 1774. Composed 40 Operas, 4 Oratorios, several Masses, Requiems, etc.
Voltaire at the Court of Frederick of Prussia (from 1750 until 1753). Benjamin Franklin, in America, invents the lightning conductor (1755). Conquest of India under Colonel, afterwards Lord, Clive (1757).		Rousseau (Jean Jacques), born 1712 at Geneva, in Switzerland, died 1778. Author. Some French Operas. Many Treatises on Music. Musical Dictionary. Invention of the melodrama ascribed to him. Arne (Thomas Augustus), born 1710 in London, died 1778. Composed 23 Operas, 3 Oratorios, and many other vocal pieces, etc. Boyce (William), born 1710 in England, died 1779. Organist. Several dramatic compositions, an Oratorio, sacred songs, many organ pieces. Bach (Friedemann), son of J. S. Bach, born 1710 at Weimar, died 1784. Compositions for the organ, clavichord, and harpsichord.
Death of General Wolfe at the Battle of Quebec (1759).		Bach (Carl Philipp Emanuel), son of J. S. Bach, born 1713 at Weimar, died 1788. Oratorios, cantatas, sacred songs, many compositions for the clavichord. Instruction Book for playing the clavichord.
The Seven Years' War in Germany (1756-1763).	1760	Fiorillo (Ignazio), born 1715 at Naples, died 1787. Several Operas, an Oratorio, a Requiem, Masses.
George III., King of Great Britain, grandson of George II. (1760).		Alembert (Jean-le-Rond d'), born 1717 in Paris, died 1783. Author of a System of Composition, and of other theoretical works on music.
Moses Mendelssohn, philosopher. Winckelmann, antiquarian.		Marpurg (Friedrich Wilhelm), born 1718 in Prussia, died 1795. Organ and clavichord compositions. Treatises on the Theory of Music.
Garrick, actor. Joseph II., Emperor of Austria (1765). Mesmer, a German physician, publishes his 'Theory of Animal Magnetism' (1766).		Mozart (Leopold), father of the great Mozart, born 1719 at Augsburg, died 1789. Composed 4 Operas, 12 Oratorios, many symphonies, and other instrumental and vocal music. Also a Violin School. Gerbert (Martin), Abbot, born 1720 in Austria, died 1792. History of sacred music.
Blackstone publishes his 'Commentaries on the Laws of England' (1767). Corsica becomes French (1768). Napoleon Buonaparte born at Ajaccio, in Corsica (1769).		Benda (Georg), born 1721 in Bohemia, died 1795. Composed 14 Operas, some melodramas, cantatas, and instrumental music. Kirnberger (Johann Philipp), born 1721 in Thuringia, Germany, died 1783. Composed fugues and other pieces for the clavichord and pianoforte. Author of several works on the theory of music.
Death of Emanuel Swedenborg, founder of a new religious sect (1772). Sheridan publishes his first drama, 'The Rivals' (1775). Pestalozzi founds the Reformatory School at Neuhoff, in Switzerland (1775). Adam Smith publishes his 'Wealth of Nations' (1776).	1770	The Pianoforte begins to supersede the clavichord and clavicembalo (English harpsichord). Piccini (Nicolo), born 1728 at Naples, died 1800. Composed above 130 Operas, several Oratorios, psalms, etc. Gluck (Christoph Willibald von), born 1714 at Weidenwang, Germany, died 1787. Composed 21 Operas, 8 of which are to Italian words, and 13 are to French words. A De Profundis, a Ballet entitled 'Don Juan,' some secular songs, a few instrumental pieces, etc. Sarti (Giuseppe), born 1730 at Faenza, died 1802. Composed 44 Operas, and several sacred pieces.
Necker, Minister of Finance in France (1777). The Sandwich Islands are discovered by Captain Cook (1778). Death of William Pitt, first Earl of Chatham (1778). Captain Cook is killed by the natives of Owyhee (1779). J. Priestley, chemical philosopher (1733-1804). Hunter, surgeon (1728-1793). Sir W. Jones, orientalist (1746-1794). Horace Walpole (1717-1797). Boswell, biographer of Dr. Johnson. Cowper, poet. Bacon, sculptor.		Lolli (Antonio), born about 1730 at Bergamo, died 1802. Violinist. Many compositions for his instrument. Majo (Francesco de), born 1745 at Naples, died 1774. Composed 13 Operas, many Masses, Vespers, etc. Arteaga (Steffano), born about 1730 at Madrid, died 1799. Author of a History of the Italian Opera. Philidor (François André), born 1727 at Dreux, died 1795. Composed 22 Operas, of which 11 are to Italian words, and 11 to French words. Philidor is also celebrated as a chess-player. Monsigny (Pierre Alexandre), born 1729 at St. Omer, died 1817. Composed 17 Operas, ballets, etc. Gossec (François Joseph), born 1733 at Hainault, died 1829. Composed 28 Operas, and many sacred compositions. Hawkins (John), born 1720 in England, died 1791. Author of a History of Music. Burney (Charles), born 1726 at Shrewsbury, died 1814. Author of a History of Music, and some other works. Abel (Carl Friedrich), born 1725 at Köthen, in Germany, died 1787 in London. Viola-da-Gambist and composer.
Josiah Wedgewood, improver of pottery manufacture (1730-1795). Alfieri publishes his first tragedy 'Cleopatra' (1773). Benjamin Franklin, American philosopher and statesman (1706-1790). Pope Clement XIV. suppresses the Order of the Jesuits, founded in the year 1540 (1773). The Jesuits were expelled from England in 1604; from France, in 1764; from Spain, in 1767. The Order was restored by Pope Pius VII. in 1814.		Hiller (Johann Adam), born 1728 in Lusatia, Germany, died 1804. Composed 18 Operettas, many psalms, sacred and secular songs, symphonies, sonatas, and musical treatises. Haydn (Joseph), born 1732 at Rohrau, in Austria, died 1809 Composed 24 Operas (10 with German words, and 14 with Italian words), 4 Oratorios, 19 Masses, several Te Deums, a Stabat Mater, Salve Regina, many motetts and other sacred music, 118 symphonies, 83 quartetts, 44 sonatas, and many other instrumental and vocal compositions. J. Haydn wrote in 1783 the Oratorio The Seven Words, for Cadix; in 1800, The Creation; in 1803, The Seasons; in 1791 and 1793; the twelve so-called English symphonies, in London. Kittel (Johann Christian), born 1732 at Erfurt in Germany, died 1809. Many organ compositions.
Death of Lord Clive (1774). The American Colonies deny the right of the British Parliament to tax them (1774). The first battle of the American war at Lexington (1775). Voltaire (1694-1778).		Gluck in Paris, from 1774 to 1779. Representations of his Operas. Reform of the French dramatic music. Rivalry between Gluck and Piccini in Paris. First performance of Orpheus and Euridice, Vienna 1762; of Alceste, Vienna, 1767; of Iphigenia in Aulis, Paris, 1774; of Armida, Paris, 1777; of Iphigenia in Tauris, Paris, 1779. The Operas by Gluck are the noblest musical dramas in existence. They have served as models for the most eminent operatic composers whose works have been written subsequently to those of Gluck.
W. Herschel, astronomer (1738-1822). W. Herschel discovers the planet Uranus, or Georgium Sidus (1781).	1780	Sacchini (Antonio Maria Giuseppe), born 1735 at Naples, died 1786. Composed 50 Operas, several Oratorios, Masses with double choruses, a Miserere, several other sacred compositions, sonatas, violin-trios, etc.
Mail Coaches are first set up at Bristol by Mr. Palmer, and are soon in use all through England (1784).		Anfossi (Pasquale), born about 1736 at Naples, died 1797. Many Operas and sacred compositions. Traetta (Tomaso), born 1738 at Naples, died 1786. Operas and Church music.
The Crimea is given up by Turkey to Russia (1784).		Sabbatini (Luigi Antonio), born 1739 at Albano, died 1809. Church music and several theoretical works.
The power-loom for weaving is invented by E. Cartwright (1785).		Boccherini (Luigi), born 1740 at Lucca, died 1806. Many symphonies, quintetts, quartetts, sonatas, and other instrumental compositions.
Watt greatly improves the Steam Engine (1736-1819). Watt's double Steam Engine (about 1780). The Steam Engine is applied to cotton spinning (1785). Lessing (1729-1781). The United States of America declare their independence (1776). Alliance between France and the United States (1778).		Paesiello (Giovanni), born 1741 at Taranto, died 1816. Composed 94 Operas, an Oratorio, a Requiem, many Masses, a Te Deum, and other sacred music. Great popularity of the Operas by Paesiello, Cimaroso, Sacchini, Piccini, etc. Langlé (Onorio Francesco), born 1741 at Monaco, died 1807. Composed 8 Operas (with French words), and wrote several theoretical works on music in French. Grétry (André-Ernest-Modeste), born 1741 at Liége, died 1813. Composed 59 Operas, several Masses, motetts, symphonies, quartetts, pianoforte-sonatas, etc. Also Essays on Music. Battishill (Jonathan), born 1738 in London, died 1801. Many sacred vocal compositions, and some Operas.
Spain and Holland in favour of the United States (1779).		Arnold (Samuel), born 1740 in London, died 1802. Composed 40 Operas and Operettas (with English words), 7 Oratorios, etc.
United States of North America independent. Washington their President (1783).		Bach (Johann Christian), son of J. S. Bach, born 1735 at Leipzig, died 1782 in London. Composed 15 Operas (with Italian words), 18 concertos for the harpsichord, sonatas, trios, and other instrumental pieces.
Washington (1732-1799). Frederick-William II., King of Prussia, nephew of Frederick the Great (1786).		Albrechtsberger (Johann Georg), born 1736 in the neighbourhood of Vienna, died 1809. Composed 26 Masses, 43 graduales, 34 offertories, and other sacred compositions, many organ-fugues, etc. Author of a work on the Theory of Music.
The Quakers at Philadelphia emancipate their slaves (1788).		Haydn (Michael), brother of Joseph Haydn, born 1737 in Rohrau, died 1806. Many Masses, Offertories, Te Deums, etc.
First English settlement in Australia, at Botany Bay (1788).		Dittersdorf (Carl Ditters von), born 1739 at Vienna, died 1799. Composed 37 Operas, 41 symphonies, many concertos and other instrumental pieces.
Invention of the balloon, and ascent by Montgolfier, in Paris (1783).		André (Johann), born 1741 at Offenbach, in Germany, died 1799. Composed about 30 German Operettas.
Blanchard and Jefferies cross the English Channel in a balloon (1785).		Naumann (Johann Gottlieb), born 1741 in Saxony, died 1801. Composed 26 Operas, 13 Oratorios, many Masses, psalms, cantatas, and other vocal music, many symphonies, concertos, and other instrumental pieces.
Diderot (1713-1784). Buffon (1707-1788). Herschel completes his great forty-foot telescope, discovers volcanic mountains in the moon, etc. (1787).	1784	Martini (Johann Paul Egydius), properly Schwarzendorf, born 1741 in Germany, died 1816. Composed 12 Operas (with French words), a Requiem, Masses, a Te Deum. Wrote several theoretical works on music. Festival in commemoration of Handel, in London. Mara (Gertrude Elizabeth), the celebrated German singer (born 1749 at Cassel, died 1833), visits London, and sings at the Festival.
The French Revolution (1789).		Origin of the English Musical Festivals, in which the principal performers are mostly foreigners.
Death of Mirabeau (1791). Royalty abolished in France (1792). Louis XVI. beheaded (1793).	1790	Salieri (Antonio), born 1750 at Legnano, died 1825. Composed 41 Operas, a Requiem, many vocal-canons, and other vocal pieces. Zingarelli (Nicolo), born 1752 at Rome, died 1837. Composed 22 Operas, 38 Masses with organ, 45 other Masses, 4 Requiems, and many other sacred compositions.
Marat stabbed by Charlotte Corday (1793). Robespierre guillotined (1794).		Clementi (Muzio), born 1752 at Rome, died 1832. Pianist and founder of pianoforte-playing. Composed above 60 sonatas for pianoforte alone, many others with accompaniments, fugues, studies (Gradus ad Parnassum), symphonies. Also an instruction book for the pianoforte.
Netherlandish Painters:—Van Os, Vanloo, Van Spaendonk, Scheffer, Pienemann, Hodges, Kuipers, Ommegang, Wonder, etc. French Painters:—Joseph Vernet (1714-1789), Greuze, Vien, David, Isabey, Drouais, Gerard, Gros, Ingres, Regnauld, Guerin, Horace Vernet (born 1789), etc.		Clementi and Beethoven, by their compositions for the pianoforte, especially promoted the perfecting and the popularity of the pianoforte. Viotti (Giovanni Battista), born 1753 at Piedmont, died 1824. Violinist, and founder of a new school of violin-playing. Many concertos and other instrumental compositions. Cimarosa (Domenico), born 1754 at Naples, died 1801. Composed 75 Operas, a Requiem, Masses, etc. Dalayrac (Nicolas), born 1753 in Languedoc, France, died 1809. Composed 56 Operas.
Denmark sets the example of abolishing the slave trade (1791). France abolishes slavery in her colonies (1794). Abolition of the slave trade by the English Parliament (1807).		Shield (William), born 1754 in London, died 1829. Composed Operas, canzonets, instrumental trios. Author of a Treatise on Harmony. Storace (Stephan), born 1763 in London, of Italian origin, died 1796. Composed 14 Operas with English words. Gerber (Ernst Ludwig), born 1746 in Saxony, died 1819. Author of two biographical Dictionaries of Musicians, and of some books of instruction on music.
Vaccination is introduced by Dr. Jenner (1796).		Schulz (Johann Peter), born 1747 at Lüneburg, in Germany, died 1800. Several Operas, Oratorios, choruses, etc.
Lithography is invented by Alois Sennefelder (1796).		Neefe (Christian), born 1748 in Saxony, died 1798. Composed 10 Operas. Teacher of Beethoven, in Bonn.
Hahnemann, founder of Homœopathy (1796). In the year 1792 the French nation adopted a new Calendar founded on philosophical principles. It remained in use until the end of the year 1805, when the Gregorian mode of calculation was restored at the instance of Napoleon. The public feasts or "Sansculottides," fixed in the Revolutionary Calendar, were dedicated to Les Vertus, Sept. 17; Le Génie, Sept. 18; Le Travail, Sept. 19; L'Opinion, Sept. 20; Les Recompenses, Sept. 21.		Stadler (Maximilian), Abbé, born 1748 in Austria, died 1833. An Oratorio, Masses, psalms, and other sacred vocal music, compositions for the organ and the pianoforte. Vogler (Georg Joseph), Abbé, born 1749 at Würzburg, in Germany, died 1814. Composed 5 Operas, several Masses, many other sacred compositions, symphonies, organ pieces, etc. Author of several theoretical works on music. Forkel (Johann Nikolaus), born 1749 at Coburg, in Germany, died 1818. Wrote a History of Music, and several other musical treatises. Koch (Heinrich Christoph), born 1749 at Rudolstadt, Germany, died 1816. Instruction books on harmony, and a Musical Dictionary. Kauer (Ferdinand), born 1751 in Moravia, died 1831. Above 200 Operas of a light and popular character. Reichardt (Johann Friedrich), born 1752 at Königsberg, in Prussia, died 1814. Composed 30 Operas, some Oratorios, hymns, secular songs. Author of several Treatises on Music, etc.
Revolution in Poland: Kosciusko, in the beginning successful, is later defeated. Suwarrow storms Warsaw (1794). The third division of Poland between Russia, Austria, and Prussia (1795).		Knecht (Justin Heinrich), born 1752 at Bieberich, in Germany, died 1817. Masses, cantatas, and other sacred music, and an instruction book on harmony. Türk (Daniel Gottlieb), born 1756 in Saxony, died 1813. An Oratorio, motetts, many pieces for the clavichord and the pianoforte, a Treatise on Thorough-bass, etc.
La Place, mathematician and astronomer (1796). Stereotyping invented by Ambrose Didot, of Paris (1797). Frederick William III., King of Prussia (1797). Buonaparte in Egypt and Syria (1798). Buonaparte, in France, is declared First Consul (1799).		Mozart (Wolfgang Amadeus), born 1756 at Salzburg, died 1791. Composed 6 great Operas with Italian words, 2 great Operas with German words, 8 earlier Italian Operas, 2 German Operettas, several cantatas, a Requiem, many Masses, graduales, offertories, hymns, a Te Deum, and other sacred compositions, about 33 symphonies, 23 pianoforte concertos, some concertos for other instruments, 6 violin quintetts, 26 violin quartetts, 31 pianoforte sonatas with and without accompaniments, many other instrumental compositions, many songs, etc.
The English take possession of most of the French and Dutch dominions in America (1803). Napoleon, Emperor of France (1804). Kant, philosopher (1724-1804). Death of Nelson (1805). Death of Pitt (1806).	1800	Mozart composed, in 1780, the Opera 'Idomeneo' for Munich; in 1781, 'Die Entführung aus dem Serail' (his first Opera with German words) for Vienna; in 1785, 'Le Nozze de Figaro' for Vienna; in 1787, 'Don Giovanni' for Prague; in 1790, 'Cosi Fan Tutte' for Vienna; in 1791, 'La Clemenza di Tito' for Prague, and 'Die Zauberflöte' (his second Opera with German words) for Vienna. In the same year, 1791, he wrote also his Requiem.
Wieland (1733-1813). Napoleon arrives at Elba (1814). Napoleon defeated at Waterloo (1815). The "Holy Alliance" concluded at Paris (1815).		Righini (Vincenzo), born 1756 at Bologna, died 1812. Composer of 20 Operas, several Masses and other sacred music. Cherubini (Luigi), born 1760 at Florence, died 1842. Composer of 29 Operas, some ballets, 4 great Masses, 2 Requiems, many other sacred pieces, violin quartetts and other instrumental music. Author of a Treatise on Musical Composition.
The Jesuits expelled from Russia (1816). The foreign troops evacuate France (1818). Death of Marshal Blücher, aged 77 (1819).		Gervasoni (Carlo), born 1762 at Milan, died 1819. Instruction books and historical Treatises on Music. Mayer (Simon), born 1763 in Bavaria, died 1845. From his early youth lived in Italy. Composer of 77 Operas, many Oratorios, Masses, psalms, and other sacred music.
Captain Ross makes a voyage of Discovery in the Polar Sea (1818). Klopstock (1724-1803). Herder (1744-1803).		Mehul (Etienne Henri), born 1763 at Givet, died 1817. Composed 42 Operas, many hymns, cantatas, etc. Lesueur (Jean François), born 1764 at Abbeville, died 1837. Composed 10 Operas, 33 Oratorios, several Masses and motetts.
Winsor, a German, obtains in England a patent as the inventor of gas for the purpose of illumination. He makes his first experiment at the Lyceum in the Strand (1804). Schiller (1759-1805).		Rouget de Lille (Claude Joseph), born 1760 at Lons-le-Saulnier, died 1836. Composer of romances, and of the Marseillaise. Attwood (Thomas), born 1767 in England. Many Operas and sacred compositions. Winter (Peter von), born 1755 at Mannheim in Germany, died 1825. Above 30 Operas, many Ballets, Oratorios, Masses, motetts, hymns, cantatas, etc.
Schiller's 'The Robbers' appeared in 1781; Don Carlos, about 1785; Wallenstein, 1799; Maria Stuart, 1800; William Tell, 1804.		Pleyel (Jgnaz), born 1757 near Vienna, died 1831. Composed 29 symphonies, many violin-quartetts, pianoforte-sonatas, etc. Preindl (Joseph), born 1758 in Austria, died 1823. Many Masses, a Requiem, and other church music. Instruction books for thorough-bass, for singing, etc.
Painters:—David, Fuseli, G. F. Morland, Stothard, Benjamin West, Northcote, etc. Actors:—J. P. Kemble, Mrs. Siddons, Talma. First meeting of the Imperial Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland (1801). Jefferson, President of the United States (1801). Institution of the Legion of Honour in France (1802).		Zelter (Carl Friedrich), born 1758 in Berlin, died 1832. Many vocal compositions, and some literary productions. Zelter founded, in 1808, the first German Liedertafel, or society of male singers. Similar societies have subsequently become popular in Germany and other countries. Zumsteeg (Johann Rudolph), born 1760 at Sachsenflur, in Germany, died 1802. Composed 8 Operas, many ballads, and other vocal music. Dussek (Johann Ludwig), born 1761 in Bohemia, died 1812. Pianist and composer for his instrument. Wrote 13 concertos, 53 sonatas, several pianoforte-quartetts, etc. Also an Opera.
Men of Science born about this time:— Sir D. Brewster, philosopher, born 1781. G. B. Airy, astronomer, born 1801. Baron Liebig, chemist, born 1803. R. Owen, comparative anatomist, born 1804.		Kunzen (Friedrich), born 1761 at Lübeck, died 1817. Composed 9 Operas (8 of which are with Danish words, and one is with German words), 3 Oratorios, several cantatas, and other sacred music.
		Gyrowetz (Adalbert), born 1763 in Bohemia, died 1850. Above 30 Operas, many Ballets and Entr'actes, sacred vocal music, many symphonies, quartetts, pianoforte compositions, songs, etc.
Brassey, engineer, born 1805. Lesseps, French engineer, born 1806. J. Stuart Mill, philosopher, born 1807. Longfellow, American poet, born 1807.		Steibelt (Daniel), born about 1764 at Berlin, died 1823. Pianist. Composed 6 pianoforte concertos, 46 solo sonatas and many other compositions for the pianoforte, studies for the pianoforte, and an instruction book for that instrument; also 4 Operas.
Lyon Playfair, chemist, born 1819. J. Tyndal, chemist, born 1820. Death of Sheridan (1816).	1810	Paer (Ferdinando), born 1771 at Parma, died 1839. Composer of 51 Operas, 11 cantatas, and other vocal music. Berton (Henri Montan), born 1767 in Paris, died 1844. About 50 Operas, several Oratorios, cantatas, and Treatises on the Theory of Music.
Iffland, German actor and dramatic writer (1759-1814).		Baillot (Pierre), born 1771 at Passy, died 1842. Violinist. Concertos and other compositions for the violin, an instruction book for the violin, etc.
Thorwaldsen, Danish sculptor (1770-1844).		Choron (Alexandre Etienne), born 1772 at Caën, died 1834. Many theoretical works. A Musical Dictionary.
Béranger, French poet (1780-1857). Arago, French Savant (1786-1835).		Catel (Charles Simon), born 1773 at L'Aigle, died 1830. Composed 10 Operas, many instrumental and vocal pieces. Author of a Treatise on Harmony, etc.
C. Babbage, philosophical mechanist (1792-1871).		Rode (Pierre), born 1774 at Bordeaux, died 1830. Violinist. Many concertos, quartetts, and other compositions.
Sir Charles Lyell, geologist (1797-1875). Statesmen born about this time:— Gladstone born 1809. Baron Beust, born 1809.		Cramer (John Baptiste), born 1771 at Mannheim, in Germany, but living from early childhood in England, died 1858. Pianist. Pianoforte studies, 105 solo sonatas, and 7 concertos for the pianoforte. Also a pianoforte school, etc.
Bismarck-Schönhausen, born 1813. Count Cavour, born 1810. Cobden, born 1804.		Weigl (Joseph), born 1766 at Eisenstadt, in Hungary, died 1846. About 30 Operas, 14 ballets, 21 Oratorios and cantatas, 10 Masses, and other sacred music.
John Bright, born 1811.		Weber (Bernhard Anselm), born 1766 at Mannheim, died 1821. Several Operas, melodramas, and Entr'actes.
Sculptors born about this time:— Marochetti, born 1805. Kiss, born 1802. Powers, born 1805.		Romberg (Andreas), born 1767 in Vechte, near Münster, in Germany, died 1821. Composed 7 Operas, a Te Deum, psalms and other sacred compositions, many symphonies and other instrumental music, secular songs, etc.
The Jesuits are expelled from Prussia (1817). The Mahratta war in Hindustan.		Romberg (Bernhard), brother of Andreas Romberg, born 1770 near Münster in Germany, died 1841. Violoncellist. Composed 3 Operas, many concertos and other pieces for the violoncello, quartetts, etc.
Steam applied to printing in the Times office (1814). The Marquess of Hastings renders British influence universal in India (1817). The Island of Singapore is formed into a British settlement by Sir Stamford Raffles (1818). Reunion of the Lutheran and other reformed forms of worship in several parts of Germany (1818). Voyage to the Polar Sea by Parry (1819). Parry undertakes another voyage to reach the North Pole (1820).		Müller (Wenzel), born 1767 in Moravia, died 1835. Above 200 Operas of a light popular character, pantomimes, etc. Nägeli (Johann Georg), born 1773 near Zurich, in Switzerland, died 1836. Promoter of popular singing societies, composer of vocal music, and author of instruction books on singing, etc. Beethoven (Ludwig van), born 1770 at Bonn, died 1827. An Opera, 2 dramas with music, a melodrama, several single dramatic choruses and songs, an Oratorio, 2 Masses, 9 symphonies, 11 overtures, a septett, 7 concertos for pianoforte, a violin concerto, 2 violin quintetts, 17 violin quartetts, 5 violin trios, 35 solo sonatas for the pianoforte, 10 sonatas for pianoforte and violin, 6 sonatas for pianoforte and violoncello, 7 trios for pianoforte, violin, and violoncello, a pianoforte quintett, a great many other pianoforte compositions, cantatas, songs with pianoforte accompaniment, etc.
George IV., King of Great Britain, son of George III. (1820). Guizot, French statesman and historian (1787-1874). Revolution in Spain; King Ferdinand VII. swears to the constitution of the Cortes (1820).		In 1793 Beethoven came to Vienna as Virtuoso on the pianoforte, and distinguished himself by his improvisations; in 1795 he published his first important work, the three pianoforte trios, Op. 1; in 1799 appeared his first symphony; in 1804 his Opera 'Leonore' (Fidelio); in 1809 his symphony in C Minor and his pastoral symphony; in 1814 his A Major symphony; in 1818 his ninth symphony. Reicha (Anton), born 1770 at Prague, died 1836. Four Operas, symphonies, quartetts, sonatas, etc., and several Treatises on Harmony and Composition.
Mexico separates from Spain (1820). Insurrection in Portugal (1820). Revolution in the Brazils; King John VI. returns to Portugal, and his son, Dom Pedro, is made Regent of the Brazils (1820). Peru declares herself independent (1820).		Tomaschek (Johann Wenzel), born 1774 in Bohemia, died 1850. An Opera, several cantatas, a Requiem, a Te Deum, Masses, and other sacred compositions, secular songs, symphonies, quartetts, pianoforte pieces. Kiesewetter (Raphael Georg), born 1773 in Moravia, died 1850. Many dissertations relating to the history of music. Weyse (Christoph Ernst Friedrich), born 1774 at Altona, in Germany, died 1842. Several Operas with Danish words, symphonies, sonatas and other instrumental pieces. He lived in Copenhagen.
Napoleon dies at St. Helena (1821). Union of the Greeks in one confederate state (1822).	1820	Baini (Giuseppe), Abbate, born 1775 at Rome, died 1844. Many sacred compositions and historical Treatises on Music. Author of the 'Life of Palestrina.' Generali (Pietro), born 1783 in Piedmont, died 1832. About 50 Operas.
Dr. T. Young, natural philosopher, and discoverer of the hieroglyphic alphabet.		Paganini (Nicolo), born 1784 at Genoa, died 1840. Violinist. Concertos and other compositions for his instrument. Spontini (Gasparo), born 1784 at Rome, died 1851. Composer of about 26 Operas.
Sir Humphry Davy, chemist, inventor of the safety-lamp, etc. Macadam, improver of roads. Francis Douce, antiquarian. Cuvier, naturalist.		Isouard (Nicolo), born 1775 in Malta, died 1818. Composed 42 Operas, several Masses, cantatas, etc. Boieldieu (François Adrien), born 1775 at Rouen, died 1834. Composed 23 Operas. Lafont (Charles Philippe), born 1781 in Paris, died 1839. Violinist. Many compositions for the violin, and many romances.
Channing (Unitarian Preacher), Sir R. Phillips, W. Hazlitt, Charles Lamb, miscellaneous writers.		Onslow (Georges), born 1784 at Clermont, in France, died 1852. Composed 3 Operas, several symphonies, many violin quintetts, quartetts, trios, 2 pianoforte sextetts, and other pianoforte music. Auber (Daniel François Esprit), born 1782 at Caën, in France, died 1871. Above 30 Operas.
P. B. Shelley, James Hogg (the "Ettrick Shepherd"), Reginald Heber, Robert Southey, Sir Walter Scott, poets.		Fétis (François Joseph), born 1784 at Mons, in Belgium, died 1872. Dictionary of Musicians, historical Treatises on Music, etc. Castil-Blaze (François Henri Joseph), born 1784 at Cavaillon, in France, died 1857. Several Treatises on Music, a Musical Dictionary, etc.
Charles X., King of France (1824).		Bishop (Henry Rowley), born 1782 in London, died 1855. Composed 63 Operas and other dramatic pieces, songs, etc.
Burmese war. Capture of Rangoon by the British (1824).		Field (John), born 1782 at Dublin, died 1837 at Moscow. Pianist. Pupil of Clementi. Pianoforte concertos, notturnos, etc.
Denham and Clapperton's exploring expedition to Central Africa (1824).		Hummel (Johann Nepomuk), born 1778 at Pressburg, died 1837. Pianist. Composed 5 Operas, several ballets, 2 cantatas, many pianoforte concertos, trios, sonatas, 2 pianoforte septetts, etc. Also a pianoforte school.
Bowdich, on an expedition to explore the interior of Africa, died at the mouth of the Gambia (1824).		Neukomm (Sigismund), born 1778 at Salzburg, died 1858. Pupil of J. Haydn. Composed 10 Operas, many cantatas, 7 Oratorios, 15 Masses, many psalms, symphonies, quartetts, sonatas, etc.
Death of Lord Byron (1824). Nicholas I., Emperor of Russia (1825). Death of John VI., King of Portugal (1826).		Logier (Johann Bernhard), born 1777 at Kaiserslautern, in Germany, died 1846. A new method of teaching the pianoforte and the Theory of Music. Diabelli (Anton), born 1781, near Salzburg, died 1858. Many Masses and other Church music, pianoforte compositions and songs.
Don Pedro I., Emperor of Brazil, son of John VI., renounces the Portuguese crown in favour of his daughter, Maria da Gloria, aged seven years. The Infanta Isabella governs as Regent till the year 1828 (1826).		Kreutzer (Conradin), born 1782 at Möskirch, in Germany, died 1849. Composed 24 Operas, an Oratorio, several Masses and other Church music, many instrumental pieces and songs. Spohr (Louis), born 1784 at Brunswick, in Germany, died 1859. Violinist. Composed 8 Operas, several Oratorios, psalms, and other sacred music, symphonies, many violin quartetts, quintetts, concertos, and other compositions for the violin, etc. Also a violin school.
Canova, Sculptor ( 1757-1822). Charles X. expelled from France, retires to England in the year 1830.		Ries (Ferdinand), born 1784 at Bonn, died 1838. Pupil of Beethoven. Pianist. Composed 2 Operas, some sacred and secular vocal music, pianoforte concertos, quartetts, trios, sonatas, etc.
Jean Paul, Friedrich Richter (1763-1825).		Kalkbrenner (Friedrich), born 1784 at Cassel, in Germany, died 1849. Pianist. Many pianoforte compositions, and a pianoforte school.
First Steam Voyage to India, by Captain Johnston in the 'Enterprise' (1825).		Kuhlau (Friedrich), born 1786 at Uelzen, in Germany, died 1832, in Denmark. Composed 5 Operas with Danish words, and many compositions for the flute, the pianoforte, and for other instruments.
Athens, besieged by the Turks, is forced to surrender (1826). Russia at war with Persia (1827).		Weber (Carl Maria von), born 1786 at Eutin, in Germany, died 1826, in London. Composed 8 Operas, several dramatic scenes, Masses, hymns, overtures, pianoforte concertos, clarionet concertos, pianoforte sonatas, songs, etc.
Russia makes peace with Persia and increases her possessions in the south (1828).		In 1821, first performance of 'Der Freischütz' at Berlin; in 1823, 'Euryanthe' at Vienna; in 1826, 'Oberon' in London.
Russia at war with Turkey (1828).		Fesca (Friedrich Ernst), born 1789 at Magdeburg, died 1826. Some Operas, many psalms and other sacred music, symphonies, quintetts, many quartetts, etc.
The Turks are conquered by the Russian General Diebitch (1829).		Schneider (Johann Christian Friedrich), born 1786 in Saxony, died 1858. About 9 Oratorios, several Masses, hymns, cantatas, instrumental compositions, songs, etc.
Turkey acknowledges the independence of Greece (1829).		Schubert (Franz), born 1797 in Vienna, died 1828. Several Operas, Masses and other Church music, symphonies, quartetts, trios, and other instrumental pieces, sonatas, fantasias, etc. for the pianoforte, a great many songs with pianoforte accompaniment.
Charles X., King of France, deposed (1830).	1830	Carafa (Michele), born 1785 at Naples, died 1872. About 30 Operas.
Göthe (1749-1832). William IV., King of Great Britain, brother of George IV. (1830).		Rossini (Gioachino Antonio), born 1792 at Pesaro, died 1868. About 40 Operas, a Stabat Mater, some other sacred vocal music, several secular cantatas, orchestral pieces, etc.
Louis-Phillipe, King of France (1830). Cholera Morbus, its first appearance in England (1831). Death of Sir Walter Scott (1832). Slavery abolished throughout the British Colonies (1834). Wilhelm von Humboldt, philologist (1767-1835).		Bellini (Vincenzo), born 1802 at Catania, in Sicily, died 1835. Composed 10 Operas, some sacred music, symphonies, overtures, etc. Herold (Louis), born 1791 in Paris, died 1833. Composed 16 Operas and several ballets. Lindpaintner (Peter Joseph), born 1791 at Coblenz, died 1856. About 25 Operas, 9 ballets, Oratorios, Masses, motetts, symphonies, etc. Mayseder (Joseph), born 1789 in Vienna, died 1863. Many compositions for violin, quintetts, quartetts, pianoforte trios, sonatas, etc.; also a Mass.
Alexander von Humboldt, naturalist (1769-1859).		Moscheles (Ignaz), born 1794 at Prague, died 1870. Pianist. Many pianoforte compositions; also some symphonies, etc.
Edmund Kean, English actor (1787-1833). The first great English railway by steam engines is the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened in 1830.		Klein (Bernhard), born 1794 at Cologne, died 1832. About 3 Operas, 4 Oratorios, a Stabat Mater, and other sacred music. Meyerbeer (Jacob), born 1794 in Berlin, died 1864. Composed 16 Operas, an Oratorio, a Stabat Mater, a Te Deum, a Miserere, many psalms and other sacred music, secular songs, etc.
Queen Victoria born in 1819, ascends the throne (1837).		Czerny (Carl), born 1791 in Vienna, died 1857. Many pianoforte pieces; also Masses, Te Deums, and other sacred music; theoretical works.
Marriage of Queen Victoria with Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg (1840).	1840	Hauptmann (Moritz), born 1794 at Dresden, died 1868. Several sacred compositions, quartetts, sonatas, secular songs, and theoretical works.
		Pacini (Giovanni), born 1796 at Syracuse, died 1867. Composed 34 Operas.
Prince of Wales born (1841). Frederick William IV., King of Prussia (1840). Pius IX., Pope (1846).		Donizetti (Gaetano), born 1797 at Bergamo, died 1848. Above 70 Operas, a Miserere, and other sacred music, many romances and other songs. Mercadante (Saverio), born 1797 at Altamura, in Italy, died 1870. Above 30 Operas.
G. C. Prichard, English ethnologist (1786-1848). Revolution in France (1848).		Panseron (Auguste), born 1796 in Paris, died 1859. Some Operas, a Requiem, 3 Masses, other sacred music, many romances, an instruction book on singing, etc.
The Monarchy abolished in France.		Halévy (Jacques), born 1799 in Paris, died 1862. Above 20 Operas.
Louis-Phillipe, King of France, deposed (1848). He dies in exile, in England (1850).		Marschner (Heinrich), born 1795 at Zittau, in Saxony, died 1861. Many Operas, Masses, secular songs, etc.
		Reissiger (Carl), born 1789 near Wittemberg, in Germany, died 1859. Ten Operas, many Masses, symphonies, quartetts, pianoforte trios, songs, etc.
New Republic in France. Louis Napoleon Charles Buonaparte (son of Louis Buonaparte, for a short time King of Holland, and nephew of Napoleon I.) is elected President of the Republic (1848).		Marx (Adolph Bernhard), born 1799 at Halle, died 1866. Two Oratorios and some other compositions; a work on musical composition, and several other treatises on music. Lvoff (Alexis), born 1799 at Reval, died 1870. Violinist. Composer of the Russian National Hymn, and of other music. Löwe (Johann Carl), born 1796 near Halle, died 1869. Many ballads and other songs, also several Operas, Oratorios, and pianoforte compositions.
Botta & Layard excavate the Assyrian mounds (about 1840-1850).	1850	Beriot (Charles Auguste de), born 1802, at Louvain, died 1870. Violinist. Concertos and other compositions for the violin. A violin school.
Death of Wordsworth (1850). Great Exhibition in London projected by Prince Albert (1851).		Berlioz (Hector), born 1803, at La Côte Saint-André, in France, died 1869. Requiem, symphonies, overtures, other orchestral works with and without vocal music. A Treatise on Instrumentation, and many Musical Essays.
Death of the Duke of Wellington (1852). The Prince President of the French Republic is declared Emperor of the French and assumes the title of Napoleon III. (1852).		Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (Felix), born 1809 at Hamburg, died 1847. Composed two Oratorios, other sacred compositions, 2 Operas, other dramatic music, symphonies, overtures, ottett, quintetts, quartetts, etc., organ compositions, pianoforte concertos, sonatas, etc., 'Songs without Words' for the pianoforte, secular songs for a single voice, and for several voices, etc.
Historians:—Thos. Carlyle, Macaulay, Guizot, Thiers, Rotteck, etc.		Chopin (Frederic François), born 1810 near Warsaw, died 1849, in Paris. Pianist. Many pianoforte compositions, studies, etc.
Painters:—Rosa Bonheur, Cooper, Landseer, Millais, W. von Kaulbach, etc.		Schumann (Robert), born 1810 at Zwickau, in Saxony, died 1856. Operas, symphonies, quartetts, etc. Pianoforte compositions, songs. Essays on Music.
Novelists:—Chas. Dickens, W. M. Thackeray, Lytton Bulwer, George Eliot, (Mrs. Lewis), Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, etc. Michael Faraday, chemist.		Thalberg (Sigismund), born 1812 at Geneva, died 1871. Pianist. Compositions for the pianoforte, mostly on themes of other composers. Also two Operas, etc. Bennett (William Sterndale), born 1816 at Sheffield, died 1875. Some sacred compositions, overtures, pianoforte music, songs, etc.
Charles Darwin, philosopher and naturalist. Helmholtz, German philosopher and writer on acoustics. Important discoveries. Alfred Tennyson, Poet Laureate. Livingstone, African traveller. Bismarck, German statesman.		During the first half of the present century great progress in the construction of musical instruments, especially of wind instruments. Innumerable celebrated pianists, violinists, flutists, etc. Celebrated female singers: Catalani, Malibran, Grisi, Persiani, Pasta, Pauline Viardot, Henriette Sontag, Sophie Löwe, etc. Celebrated male singers: Lablache, Rubini, Tamburini, Braham, Wild, etc.
Moltke, German General.		Monster Concerts. Attempt of a reform of the Opera.
Great progress in sciences relating to natural philosophy, and in practical arts. Gradual dying out of many old superstitions and prejudices. However, in some countries attempts to return to a Mediæval state of civilization.		There are among our living musicians so many celebrated ones that it would really be difficult to make a satisfactory selection of them for incorporation into a concise Chronology. Fortunately, the plan adopted in the compilation, as previously explained, renders this delicate task unnecessary. As standard works on the history of music, easily accessible, may be recommended the treatises by Forkel, Kiesewetter, Bellermann, Ambros, Burney, Hawkins, Fétis, and Coussemaker.

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