Fig. 184. The lye has changed the wool cloth to a jelly.
How soap is made. When lye and grease are boiled together, they form soap. You cannot very well make soap in the laboratory now, as the measurements must be exact and you need a good deal of strong lye to make it in a quantity large enough to use. But the fact that soap is made with oil, fat, or grease boiled with lye, or caustic soda, which is almost the same thing, shows why a soap must be 99-44/100% pure, or something like that, if it is not to injure "the most delicate fabric." If a little too much lye is used there will be free alkali in the soap, and it will make your hands harsh and sore and spoil the clothes you are washing. A "pure" soap is one with no free alkali in it. A "strong" soap is one that does have some free alkali in it; there is a little too much lye for the oil or fat, so some lye is left uncombined when the soap is made. This free alkali cleans things well, but it injures hands and clothes.
When the drainpipe of a kitchen sink is stopped up, you can often clear it by sprinkling lye down it, and then adding boiling water. If you ever do this, stand well back so that no lye will spatter into your face; it sputters when the boiling water strikes it. The grease in the drainpipe combines with the lye when the hot water comes down; then the soap that is formed is carried down the pipe, partly dissolved by the hot water.
When you sponge a grease spot with ammonia, the same sort of chemical action takes place. The ammonia is a base; it combines with the grease to form soap, and this soap rinses out of the cloth.
The litmus test. To tell what things are bases and what are acids, a piece of paper dyed with litmus is ordinarily used. Litmus is made from a plant (lichen). This paper is called litmus paper. Try the following experiment with litmus paper:
Experiment 109. Pour a few drops of ammonia, a base, into a cup. Into another cup pour a few drops of vinegar, an acid. Dip your litmus paper first into one, then into the other, and then back into the first. What color does the vinegar turn it? the ammonia? Try lemon juice; diluted hydrochloric acid; a very dilute lye solution.
This is called the litmus test. All ordinary acids, if not too strong, will turn litmus pink. All bases or alkalies will turn it blue. If it is already pink when you put it into an acid, it will stay pink, of course; if it is already blue when you put it into a base, it will stay blue. But if you put a piece of litmus paper into something that is neither an acid nor a base, like sugar or salt, it will still stay the same color. So, to test for a base, use a piece of litmus paper that is pink and see if it turns blue, or if you want to test for an acid, use blue litmus paper. Do this experiment:
Experiment 110. With pink and blue litmus paper, test the different substances named below to see which are acids and which are bases. Make a list of all the acids and another list for all the bases. Do not put down anything that is neither acid or base. You cannot be sure a thing is an acid unless it turns blue litmus pink. A piece of pink litmus would stay pink in an acid, but it would also stay pink in things that were neither acid nor base, like salt or water. In the same way you cannot be sure a thing is a base unless it turns pink litmus blue. Here is a list of things to try: 1, sugar; 2, orange; 3, dilute sulfuric acid; 4, baking soda in water; 5, alum in water; 6, washing soda in water; 7, ammonia; 8, dilute lye; 9, lemon juice; 10, vinegar; 11, washing powder in water; 12, sour milk; 13, cornstarch in water; 14, wet kitchen soap; 15, oil; 16, salt in water.
You may have to make the orange and sour milk test at home. You may take two pieces of litmus paper home with you and test anything else that you may care to. If you have a garden, try the soil in it. If it is acid it needs lime.
Application 81. A boy spilled some greasy soup on his best dark blue coat. Which of the following methods would have served to clean the coat? to sponge it (a) with cold water; (b) with water (hot) and ammonia; (c) with hot water and vinegar; (d) with concentrated nitric acid; to sprinkle lye on the spot and pour boiling water over it.
Application 82. A woman scorched the oatmeal she was cooking for breakfast. When she wanted to wash the pan, she found that the blackened cereal stuck fast to the bottom. Which of the following things would have served best to loosen the burned oatmeal from the pan: lye and hot water, ammonia, vinegar, salt water, lemon juice?