ADDITIONAL READING

THE RISE OF RUSSIA. Elementary sketches: J. H. Robinson and C. A. Beard, The Development of Modern Europe, Vol. I (1907), ch. iv; H. O. Wakeman, The Ascendancy of France, 1598-1715 (1894), ch. viii, xii, xiii; Arthur Hassall, The Balance of Power, 1715-1789 (1896), ch. v, xi; A. H. Johnson, The Age of the Enlightened Despot, 1660-1789 (1910), ch. iv, v; H. T. Dyer, A History of Modern Europe from the Fall of Constantinople, 3d ed. rev. by Arthur Hassall, 6 vols. (1901), ch. xxxvi, xxxviii, xli, xlix, 1. More detailed histories: Cambridge Modern History, Vol. V (1908), ch. xvi-xix, and Vol. VI (1909), ch. x, xix; Histoire générale, Vol. V, ch. xvi-xviii, xx, Vol. VI, ch. xvii-xix, xxi, xxii, Vol. VII, ch. viii, ix, excellent chapters in French by such eminent scholars as Louis Leger and Alfred Rambaud; V. 0. Kliuchevsky, A History of Russia, Eng. trans. by C. J. Hogarth, 3 vols. (1911-1913), authoritative on the early history of Russia, but comes down only to 1610; Alfred Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie depuis les origines jusqu'à nos jours, 6th ed. (1914), ch. xiv-xxxii,—an earlier edition of this standard work was translated into English by Leonora B. Lang and published in two volumes, of which the larger part treats of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; James Mayor, Economic History of Russia, Vol. I (1914), Book I, ch. iv-vii, especially useful for the economic and social reforms of Peter the Great. On the Russian sovereigns: R. N. Bain, The First Romanovs, 1613-1725 (1905), and, by the same author, Pupils of Peter the Great: a History of the Russian Court and Empire from 1697 to 1740 (1897); Eugene Schuyler, Peter the Great, 2 vols. (1884), a scholarly work; Kazimierz Waliszewski, Peter the Great, an admirable study trans. from the French by Lady Mary Loyd (1900), and, by the same author, though not as yet translated, L'héritage de Pierre le Grand: règne des femmes, gouvernement des favoris, 1725-1741 (1900) and La dernière des Romanov, Elisabeth R (1902); Alexander Bruckner, Peter der Grosse (1879), and, by the same author, Katharina die Zweite (1883), important German works, in the Oncken Series; E. A. B. Hodgetts, The Life of Catherine the Great of Russia (1914), a recent fair-minded treatment in English. On the expansion of the Russian people: Alfred Rambaud, The Expansion of Russia, 2d ed. (1904); F. A. Golder, Russian Expansion on the Pacific, 1641- 1850; Hans Übersberger, Russlands Orientpolitik in den letzten zwei Jahrhunderten, Vol. I, down to 1792 (1913).

THE DECLINE OF SWEDEN, TURKEY, AND POLAND. On Sweden: R. N. Bain, Scandinavia, a Political History of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, 1513-1900 (1905), and, by the same author, Charles XII (1899) in the "Heroes of the Nations" Series. On Turkey: Stanley Lane- Poole, Turkey (1889), in the "Story of the Nations" Series, and E. A. Freeman, The Ottoman Power in Europe, its Nature, its Growth, and its Decline (1877), suggestive outlines by eminent English historians; Nicolae Jorga, Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches, 5 vols. (1908-1913), particularly Vols. III, IV, the best and most up-to- date history of the Ottoman Empire; Joseph von Hammer, Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches, 10 vols. (1827-1835), an old work, very detailed and still famous, of which Vols. VI-VIII treat of the eighteenth century prior to 1774. On Poland: W. A. Phillips, Poland (1915), ch. i-vi, a convenient volume in the "Home University Library"; R. N. Bain, Slavonic Europe: a Political History of Poland and Russia from 1447 to 1796 (1908), ch. v-xix; Cambridge Modern History, Vol. VIII (1904), ch. xvii; W. R. A. Morfill, Poland (1893), in the "Story of the Nations" Series; R. H. Lord, The Second Partition of Poland: a Study in Diplomatic History (1915), scholarly and well-written; R. N. Bain, The Last King of Poland and his Contemporaries (1909); U. L. Lehtonen, Die polnischen Provinzen Russlands unter Katharina II in den Jahren 1772-1782 (1907), a German translation of an important Finnish work. An excellent French account of international relations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, affecting Russia, Sweden, Poland, and Turkey, is Émile Bourgeois, Manuel historique de politique étrangère, 4th ed., Vol. I (1906), ch. viii, x, xiii.

PART III

"LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY"

Our narrative of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries thus far has been full of intrigue, dynastic rivalry, and colonial competition. We have sat with red-robed cardinals in council to exalt the monarch of France; we have witnessed the worldwide wars by which Great Britain won and lost vast imperial domains; we have followed the thundering march of Frederick's armies through the Germanies, wasted with war; but we have been blind indeed if the glare of bright helmets and the glamour of courtly diplomacy have hidden from our eyes a phenomenon more momentous than even the growth of Russia or the conquest of New France. It is the rise of the bourgeoisie.

Driven on by insatiable ambition, not content to be lords of the world of business, with ships and warehouses for castles and with clerks for retainers, the bourgeoisie have placed their lawyers in the royal service, their learned men in the academies, their economists at the king's elbow, and with restless energy they push on to shape state and society to their own ends. In England they have already helped to dethrone kings and have secured some hold on Parliament, but on the Continent their power and place is less advanced.

For the eighteenth century is still the grand age of monarchs, who take Louis XIV as the pattern of princely power and pomp. "Benevolent despots" they are, these monarchs meaning well to govern their people with fatherly kindness. But their plans go wrong and their reforms fall flat, while the bourgeoisie become self-conscious and self-reliant, and rise up against the throne of the sixteenth Louis in France. It is the bourgeoisie that start the revolutionary cry of "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity," and it is this cry in the throats of the masses which sends terror to the hearts of nobles and kings. Desperately the old order—the old régime—defends itself. First France, then all Europe, is affected. Revolutionary wars convulse the Continent. Never had the world witnessed wars so disastrous, so bloody.

Yet the triumph of the bourgeoisie is not assured. The Revolution has been but one battle in the long war between the rival aristocracies of birth and of business—a war in which peasants and artisans now give their lives for illusory dreams of "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity," now fight their feudal lords, and now turn on their pretended liberators, the bourgeoisie. For already it begins to dawn on the dull masses that "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" are chiefly for their masters.

The old regime, its decay, the rise of the bourgeoisie, the disappointment of the common people,—these are the bold landmarks on which the student must fix his attention, while in the following chapters we sketch the condition of Europe in the eighteenth century, and trace the course of the French Revolution, the career of Napoleon, and the restoration of "law and order" under Metternich.