[Sidenote: Conclusion]
We have now completed our survey of the social, religious, and intellectual conditions in the Europe of the eighteenth century. Before our eyes have passed poverty-stricken peasants plowing their fields, prosperous merchants who demand power, frivolous nobles squandering their lives and fortunes, worldly bishops neglecting their duties, humble priests remaining faithful, sober Quakers refusing to fight, earnest astronomers who search the skies, sarcastic Deists who scoff at priests, and bourgeois philosophers who urge reform. The procession is not quite done. Last of all come the kings in their royal ermine and ministers in robes of state. To them we dedicate a new chapter. It will be the last occasion on which kings will merit such detailed attention.
ADDITIONAL READING
GENERAL SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY EUROPE. Brief outlines: J. H. Robinson and C. A. Beard, The Development of Modern Europe, Vol. I (1907), ch. viii, ix; H. E. Bourne, The Revolutionary Period in Europe, 1763-1815 (1914), ch. i, iii; Clive Day, History of Commerce (1907). More detailed accounts: Cambridge Modern History, Vol. VI; and Histoire générale, Vol. VII, ch. xiii-xvii. The most scholarly and exhaustive study of social conditions is that of Maxime Kovalevsky, Die oekonomische Entwicklung Europas bis zum Beginn der kapitalistischen Wirtschaftsform, trans. into German from Russian by Leo Motzkin, 7 vols. (1901-1914), especially Vols. VI, VII.
FRENCH SOCIETY ON THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION. Shailer Mathews, The French Revolution (reprint, 1912), ch. i-v, a clear summary; E. J. Lowell, The Eve of the French Revolution (1892), probably the best introduction in English; Alexis de Tocqueville, The State of Society in France before the Revolution of 1789, Eng. trans. by Henry Reeve, 3d ed. (1888), a brilliant and justly famous work; H. A. Taine, The Ancient Régime, Eng. trans. by John Durand, new rev. ed. (1896), another very celebrated work, better on the literary and philosophical aspects of the Old Régime than on the economic; Albert Sorel, _L'Europe et la Révolution française, Vol. I (1885) of this monumental history is an able presentation of French social conditions in the eighteenth century; Arthur Young, Travels in France, 1787, 1788, and 1789, valuable observations of a contemporary English gentleman-farmer on conditions in France, published in several editions, notably in the Bohn Library. Detailed treatises in French: Histoire de France, Vol. IX, Part I (1910), Règne de Louis XVI, 1774-1789, by H. Carré, P. Sagnac, and E. Lavisse, especially livres III, IV; Emile Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrières et de l'industrie en France avant 1789, Vol. II (1901), livre VII; Maxime Kovalevsky, La France économique et sociale à la veille de la Révolution, 2 vols. (1909- 1911), an admirable study of common life both rural and urban; Georges d'Avenel, Histoire économique de la propriété, des salaires, etc., 1200-1800, 6 vols. (1894-1912), elaborate treatments of such topics as money, land, salaries, the wealthy and bourgeois classes, the growth of private expenses, etc.; Albert Babeau's careful monographs on many phases of the Old Régime, such as Les voyageurs en France (1885), La ville (1884), La vie rurale (1885), Les artisans et les domestiques (1886), Les bourgeois (1886), La vie militaire, 2 vols. (1890), Le village (1891), La province, 2 vols. (1894); Nicolas Karéiev, Les paysans et la question paysanne en France dans le dernier quart du XVIIIe siècle, Fr. trans. (1899); Edmé Champion, La France d'après les cahiers de 1789 (1897). Also see books listed under THE FRENCH MONARCHY, 1743-1789, p. 463, below.
ENGLISH SOCIETY IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Brief surveys: A. L. Cross, History of England and Greater Britain (1914), ch. xliv; G. T. Warner, Landmarks in English Industrial History, 11th ed. (1912), ch. xiv; H. de B. Gibbins, Industry in England, 6th ed. (1910), ch. xvii- xx; G. H. Perris, The Industrial History of Modern England (1914), ch. i. Fuller treatments: H. D. Traill and J. S. Mann (editors), Social England, illus. ed., 6 vols. in 12 (1909), ch. xvi-xviii; W. G. Sydney, England and the English in the Eighteenth Century, 2 vols. (1891); E. S. Roscoe, The English Scene in the Eighteenth Century (1912); Sir H. T. Wood, Industrial England in the Middle of the Eighteenth Century (1910); Sidney and Beatrice Webb, English Local Government from the Revolution to the Municipal Corporations Act, 1688- 1835, The Manor and the Borough, 2 parts (1908), and The Story of the King's Highway (1913); W. E. H. Lecky, A History of England in the Eighteenth Century, London ed., 7 vols. (1907), particularly full on social and intellectual conditions. Special studies and monographs: A. Andréadès, History of the Bank of England, Eng. trans. by Christabel Meredith (1909), an authoritative review by a Greek scholar; Sir Walter Besant, London in the Eighteenth Century (1903), charmingly written but not always trustworthy; J. L. and B. Hammond, The Village Labourer, 1760-1832 (1911); J. E. Thorold Rogers, History of Agriculture and Prices in England, 7 vols. (1866-1902), a monumental work, of which Vol. VII deals with the eighteenth century; R. E. Prothero, English Farming Past and Present (1912); E. C. K. Gonner, Common Land and Inclosure (1912); A. H. Johnson, The Disappearance of the Small Landowner (1909); Wilhelm Hasbach, A History of the English Agricultural Labourer, new ed. trans. into English by Ruth Kenyon (1908); R. M. Gamier, History of the English Landed Interest, its Customs, Laws and Agriculture, 2 vols. (1892-1893), and, by the same author, Annals of the British Peasantry (1895). For interesting contemporary accounts of English agriculture in the eighteenth century, see the journals of Arthur Young, A Six Weeks' Tour through the Southern Counties (1768), A Six Months' Tour through the North of England, 4 vols. (1791), and The Farmer's Tour through the East of England, 4 vols. (1791). Also see books listed under THE BRITISH MONARCHY, 1760-1800, pp. 461 f., below.
SPECIAL STUDIES OF SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN OTHER COUNTRIES. For Scotland: H. G. Graham, Social Life in Scotland in the Eighteenth Century, 2 vols. (1900). For Hungary: Henry Marczali, Hungary in the Eighteenth Century (1910). For Russia: James Mavor, An Economic History of Russia, Vol. I (1914), Book II, ch. i-iv. For Spain: Georges Desdevises du Dezert, L'Espagne de l'ancien régime, 3 vols. (1897-1904). For the Germanies: Karl Biedermann, Deutschland im achtsehnten Jahrhundert, 2 vols. in 3 (1867-1880).
ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. The general histories of Christianity, cited in the bibliography to Chapter IV, above, should be consulted. Additional information can be gathered from the following. On the Catholic Church: William Barry, The Papacy and Modern Times (1911), ch. v; Cambridge Modern History, Vol. V (1908), ch. iv, on Gallicanism and Jansenism, by Viscount St. Cyres, a vigorous opponent of Ultramontanism; Histoire générale, Vol. VI, ch. vi, and Vol. VII, ch. xvii, both by Émile Chénon; Joseph de Maistre, Du pape, 24th ed. (1876), and De l'église gallicane, most celebrated treatments of Gallicanism from the standpoint of an Ultramontane and orthodox Roman Catholic; C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Port-Royal, 2d ed., 5 vols. (1860), the best literary account of Jansenism; R. B. C. Graham, A Vanished Arcadia: being some account of the Jesuits in Paraguay, 1607 to 1767 (1901); Paul de Crousaz-Crétet, L'église et l'état, ou les deux puissances au XVIIIe siècle, 1713-1789 (1893), on the relations of church and state; Léon Mention, Documents relatifs aux rapports du clergé avec la royauté de 1682 à 1789, 2 vols. (1893- 1903), containing many important documents. On Protestantism in England: H. O. Wakeman, An Introduction to the History of the Church of England, 5th ed. (1898), ch. xviii, xix; J. H. Overton and Frederic Relton, A History of the Church of England, 1714-1800 (1906), being Vol. VII of a comprehensive work ed. by W. R. W. Stephens and William Hunt; John Stoughton, Religion under Queen Anne and the Georges, 1702- 1800, 2 vols. (1878); H. W. Clark, History of English Nonconformity, 2 vols. (1911-1913), especially Vol. II, Book IV, ch. i, ii, on Methodism; W. C. Braithwaite, The Beginnings of Quakerism (1912); F. J. Snell, Wesley and Methodism (1900); and T. E. Thorpe, Joseph Priestley (1906).
DEISM AND THE SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. V, ch. xxiii, and Vol. VIII, ch. i; Histoire générale, Vol. VI, ch. x, and Vol. VII, ch. xv, two excellent chapters on natural science, 1648-1788, by Paul Tannery; Sir Oliver Lodge, Pioneers of Science (1893); Sir Leslie Stephen, History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, 3d ed., 2 vols. (1902), an interesting account of the English Deists and of the new political and economic theorists, and, by the same author, English Literature and Society in the Eighteenth Century (1909); Edmund Gosse, A History of Eighteenth Century Literature, 1660-1780 (1911); J. M. Robertson, A Short History of Free Thought, 3d rev. ed., 2 vols. (1915), a sympathetic treatment of deism and rationalism; C. S. Devas, The Key to the World's Progress (1906), suggestive criticism of the thought of the eighteenth century from the standpoint of a well- informed Roman Catholic. On the most celebrated French philosophers of the time, see the entertaining and enthusiastic biographies by John (Viscount) Morley, Rousseau, 2 vols. (1873), Diderot and the Encyclopædists, 2 vols. (1891), Voltaire (1903), and the essays on Turgot, etc., scattered throughout his Critical Miscellanies, 4 vols. (1892-1908). There is a convenient little biography of Montesquieu by Albert Sorel, Eng. trans. by Gustave Masson (1887), and useful monographs by J. C. Collins, Bolingbroke, a Historical Study; and Voltaire in England (1886). Such epochal works as Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws, Voltaire's Letters on the English and Philosophical Dictionary, and Rousseau's Social Contract and Émile, are readily procurable in English. On the rise of political economy: Henry Higgs, The Physiocrats (1897); Charles Gide and Charles Rist, A History of Economic Doctrines from the Time of the Physiocrats, Eng. trans. (1915), Book I, ch. i, ii; L. L. Price, A Short History of Political Economy in England from Adam Smith to Arnold Toynbee, 7th ed. (1911); R. B. (Viscount) Haldane, Life of Adam Smith (1887) in the "Great Writers" Series; John Rae, Life of Adam Smith (1895), containing copious extracts from Smith's letters and papers; Georges Weulersse, Le mouvement physiocratique en France de 1756 à 1770, 2 vols. (1910), scholarly and elaborate. There is a two- volume edition of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (1910) in "Everyman's Library," with an admirable introductory essay by E. R. A. Seligman.