"Fraternity" was the symbol of the brotherhood of those who sought to make the world better and happier and more just. In France it found expression in an outburst of patriotism and national sentiment. No longer did mercenaries fight at the behest of despots for dynastic aggrandizement; henceforth a nation in arms was prepared to do battle under the glorious banner of "fraternity" in defense of whatever it believed to be for the nation's interests.

Political liberty, social equality, patriotism in the nation,—these three have been the enduring watchwords of all those who down to our own day have looked for inspiration to the French Revolution.

ADDITIONAL READING

GENERAL. Textbook narratives: J. H. Robinson and C. A. Beard, The Development of Modern Europe, Vol. I (1907), ch. xii, xiii; J. A. R. Marriott, The Remaking of Modern Europe, 1789-1878 (1910), ch. i-vi; H. E. Bourne, The Revolutionary Period in Europe, 1763- 1815 (1914), ch. Vi-xvi; H. M. Stephens, Revolutionary Europe, 1789-1815 (1893), ch. ii-vi; J. H. Rose, Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, 1789-1815 (1895), ch. Ii-vi; C. A. Fyffe, A History of Modern Europe, 1792-1878 (1896), ch. i-iv; H. T. Dyer, A History of Modern Europe from the Fall of Constantinople, 3d ed. rev. by Arthur Hassall (1901), ch. lii-lxi; Charles Seignobos, History of Contemporary Civilization, Eng. trans. by J. A. James (1909), pp. 92-149. See also H. A. L. Fisher, The Republican Tradition in Europe (1911), ch. i-vii; and Emile Bourgeois, Manuel historique de politique étrangère, 4th ed., Vol. II (1906), ch. i-v, vii.

ONE-VOLUME SURVEYS: Shailer Mathews, The French Revolution (reprint 1912), a clear, well-balanced introduction, ending with the year 1795; Hilaire Belloc, The French Revolution (1911), in the "Home University Library," interestingly written and inclined to be philosophical; R. M. Johnston, The French Revolution (1909), emphasizes the spectacular and military rather than the social and economic; Louis Madelin, La Révolution (1911), written for the general French reader and probably the very best of its kind, now in process of translation into English.

STANDARD HISTORIES OF THE REVOLUTION: Alphonse Aulard, Histoire politique de la révolution française, 1789-1804, 3d ed. (1905), Eng. trans. by Bernard Miall, 4 vols. (1910), a painstaking study of the growth of the spirit of democracy and of the rise of the republican movement, by an eminent authority who has devoted many years to a sympathetic study of the Revolution; H. M. Stephens, A History of the French Revolution, 2 vols. (1886-1891), mainly political, generally reliable, but stops short with the Reign of Terror; H. A. Taine, The French Revolution, Eng. trans. by John Durand, 3 vols. (1878-1885), brilliantly written and bitterly hostile to many of the leaders of the Revolution, a work still famous though many of its findings have been vehemently assailed by Aulard, the apologist of the Revolution; Jean Jaurès (editor), Histoire socialiste, 1789- 1900, 12 vols. (1901-1909), a well-known and highly useful history of France by a group of prominent French Socialists with a penchant for stressing economic matters—Vols. I-IV, by Jaurès himself, treat of the years 1789-1794, and Vol. V, by Gabrielle Deville, of 1794-1799; P. A. (Prince) Kropotkin, The Great French Revolution, 1789-1793, Eng. trans. by N. F. Dryhurst (1909), emphasizes the role played by the uneducated classes, eulogizes Marat, and suggests the conflict of interests between the bourgeoisie and the lower classes; Thomas Carlyle, The French Revolution, originally published in 1837, lively literary gossip and commentary rather than narrative history, amusing though often fuliginous, should be read only by those already familiar with the actual events of the Revolution; Albert Sorel, L'Europe et la révolution française, 8 vols. (1885-1904), of which Vols. I-V deal with the years 1789-1799 and mainly with the effects of the Revolution throughout Europe, a monumental work of the highest merit; Gustave Le Bon, La révolution française et la psychologie des révolutions (1912), trans. by Bernard Miall under the title of The Psychology of Revolution (1913), a noteworthy contribution to the study of "mob psychology" as exemplified by the French Revolution; Ernest Lavisse and Alfred Rambaud (editors), Histoire générale, Vol. VIII, a collection of scholarly monographs on various phases of the Revolution; Cambridge Modern History, Vol. VIII (1904), a similar work in English; Heinrich von Sybel, Geschichte der Revolutionzeit von 1789, 3d ed., 5 vols. (1865-1879), the best and most famous German work on the subject; Wilhelm Oncken, Das Zeitalter der Revolution, 2 vols. (1884- 1886); Adalbert Wahl, Geschichte des europäischen Staatensystems im Zeitalter der französischen Revolution und der Freiheits-Kriege, 1789- 1815 (1912), useful epitome of foreign relations; Émile Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrières et de l'industrie en France de 1789 à 1870, Vol. I (1903), Livre I, La Révolution, valuable for the history of the working classes; Philippe Sagnac, La législation civile de la révolution française,1789-1804 (1898), very important survey of permanent social and civil gains; E. F. Henderson, Symbol and Satire in the French Revolution (1912), interesting side- lights.

SOURCE MATERIALS. Of the vast masses of source material available for special study of the French Revolution, the following selections may be found useful and suggestive: F. M. Anderson, Constitutions and Other Select Documents Illustrative of the History of France, 1789-1901, 2d rev. ed. (1909); L. G. Wickham Legg, Select Documents Illustrative of the French Revolution, the Constituent Assembly, 2 vols. (1905); Léon Duguit and Henry Monnier, Les constitutions et les principales lois politiques de la France depuis 1789 (1898); H. M. Stephens, The Principal Speeches of the Statesmen and Orators of the French Revolution, 1789-1795, 2 vols. (1892); Léon Cahen and Raymond Guyot, L'oeuvre législative de la révolution (1913); Alphonse Aulard, Les grands orateurs de la révolution—Vergniaud, Danton, Robespierre (1914); Merrick Whitcomb, Typical Cahiers of 1789, in "Translations and Reprints" of the University of Pennsylvania (1898). In the Collection de documents inédits sur l'histoire économique de la révolution française, now in course of publication under the auspices of the French Ministry of Public Instruction, have appeared (1906-1915) several volumes of the local cahiers of 1788-1789. See also Armand Brette, Recueil des documents relatifs à la convocation des états généraux de 1789, 3 vols. (1894-1904); P. J. B. Buchez and P. C. Roux- Lavergne, Histoire parlementaire de la révolution française, 1789- 1815, 40 vols. (1834-1838), embracing extracts from the debates, quotations from contemporary newspapers and pamphlets, and the text of some of the most important statutes and decrees; Archives parlementaires de 1787 à 1860, 1st series 1787-1799, 82 vols., the official, but not always trustworthy, reports of the debates in the successive French legislative bodies; Réimpression de l'ancien Moniteur, 32 vols., a reprint, in several different editions, of one of the most famous Parisian newspapers of the revolutionary period; Alphonse Aulard, La société des jacobins, 6 vols. (1889-1897), a collection of documents concerning the most influential political club of revolutionary France. Of the numerous memoirs of the time, perhaps the most valuable are those of Mallet du Pan, Comte de Fersen, Bailly, Ferrières, and Malouet; see also the History of My Time by the Duc d'Audiffret-Pasquier (1767-1862), Eng. trans. by C. E. Roche, 3 vols. (1893-1894), especially Part I; and for additional memoirs and other source-material consult the bibliographies in the Cambridge Modern History or in the Histoire générale. There are several detailed bibliographies on the French Revolution; and since 1881 the veteran scholar Aulard has edited La révolution française, devoted exclusively to the subject. For interesting personal impressions of the Revolution by an American eye-witness, see Gouverneur Morris, Diary and Letters, 2 vols. (1888). F. M. and H. D. Fling, Source Problems on the French Revolution (1913), is a useful compilation for intensive critical study of various phases of the Revolution.

SPECIAL WORKS ON THE CATHOLIC CHURCH IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. W. M. Sloane, The French Revolution and Religious Reform (1901), a résumé of legislation affecting the Church, 1789-1804; Antonin Debidour, Histoire des rapports de l'église et de l'état en France de 1789 à 1870 (1898); Pierre de La Gorce, Histoire religieuse de la révolution française, Vol. I, 1789-1791 (1909), Vol. II, 1791-1793 (1912), comprehensive and exhaustive, sympathetic with the Church but scrupulously fair; Paul Pisani, L'église de Paris et la révolution, 4 vols. (1908-1911), covering the years 1789-1802, a work of high rank by a canon of Notre Dame; J. F. E. Robinet, Le mouvement religieux à Paris pendant la révolution, 1789- 1801, 2 vols. (1896-1898), primarily a collection of documents; The Abbé Bridier (editor), A Papal Envoy during the Reign of Terror, being the Memoirs of Mgr. de Salamon the Internuncio at Paris during the Revolution, 1790-1801, Eng. trans. by Frances Jackson (1911); Ludovic Sciout, Histoire de la constitution civile du clergé, 1790- 1801, 4 vols. (1872-1881); Alphonse Aulard, La révolution et les congrégations: exposé historique et documents (1903); Edmé Champion, La séparation de l'église et de l'état en 1794 (1903).

SPECIAL WORKS ON CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH OPINION OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. Edward Dowden, The French Revolution and English Literature (1897); H. N. Brailsford, Shelley, Godwin, and their Circle (1913); W. P. Hall, British Radicalism, 1791-1797 (1912); Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, in many editions, a furious and prejudiced arraignment of the whole movement; John (Viscount) Morley, Edmund Burke (1879), an apology for Burke; John MacCunn, The Political Philosophy of Burke (1913), clear and concise though somewhat less laudatory of Burke; The Life and Writings of Thomas Paine, edited by D. E. Wheeler, 10 vols. (1909), the most elaborate edition of the writings of the chief English friend of the Revolution; Paine's The Rights of Man has appeared in many other editions.

SECONDARY WORKS ON OTHER SPECIAL TOPICS. On the wars 1792-1795: Arthur Chuquet, Les guerres de la révolution, 11 vols. (1886-1896), very detailed, coming down only to September, 1793; A. T. Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793- 1812, Vol. I, 10th ed. (1898); Mrs. Maxwell-Scott, Life of the Marquise de la Rochejaquelein (1912), and Ida A. Taylor, The Tragedy of an Army: La Vendee in 1793 (1913), two sympathetic and popular accounts of the Vendean Revolt. On the Terror: H. A. Wallon, La Terreur, 2 vols. (1881), and, by the same author, Les représentants du peuple en mission, 5 vols. (1889-1890), and Le tribunal révolutionnaire, 2 vols. (1900); Louis Mortimer-Ternaux, Histoire de la Terreur, 1792-1794, 8 vols. (1862); Edmond Bire, La légende des girondins (1881); Charles de Ricault Héricault, La révolution de thermidor, 2d ed. (1878). On the Directory, 1795-1799: Ludovic Sciout, Le Directoire, 2 vols. (1895-1896).