An economic interpretation of the Constitution of the United States

by Charles A. Beard

INDEX

• Adams, John, theories attacked, [313].
• Annapolis convention, [62].
• Army, place in government, [171] ff.
• Articles of Confederation, conditions under, [47], [58];
  • system of government, [52].
• Baldwin, Abraham, economic interests of, [74];
  • political philosophy of, [190].
• Baltimore, petitions for protection, [42];
  • popular vote in, [247].
• Bancroft, interpretation of history, [1].
• Bassett, Richard, economic interests of, [75].
• Bedford, Gunning, economic interests of, [76];
  • political philosophy of, [191].
• Blair, John, economic interests of, [77].
• Blount, William, economic interests of, [78].
• Boston, petitions for protection, [44];
  • property interests in, [261] ff.;
  • vote in, [244].
• Bowdoin, Governor, demands stronger union, [55].
• Brearley, David, economic interests of, [79].
• Broom, Jacob, economic interests of, [80];
  • political philosophy of, [191].
• Burgess, Professor, cited, [62].
• Butler, Pierce, economic interests of, [81];
  • political philosophy of, [192].
• Capital, attacks on, [31] ff.;
  • invested in lands, [49];
  • see Money and Securities.
• Carroll, Daniel, economic interests of, [82].
• “Centinel,” essays of, [312].
• Checks and balances, [159] ff.
• Cincinnati, Society of the, [38] ff.
• Cities, populace feared, [215].
• Clymer, George, [41];
  • economic interests of, [82];
  • political philosophy of, [193].
• Commerce, demands for protection of, [40] ff.;
  • influence in politics, [172], [183] ff.
• Congress, under the Articles of Confederation, [52];
  • calls the Convention at Philadelphia, [63].
• Connecticut tax returns, in, [31];
  • suffrage qualifications, [66];
  • elections to state convention, [228];
  • vote on the Constitution, [228];
  • voters for members of convention, [240];
  • economic interests and ratification of the Constitution, [265] ff.;
  • public securities in, [265];
  • conflict over ratification, [306] ff.
• Constitution, U. S., juristic theory of, [10] ff., [299];
  • economic forces in creation and adoption, [16] ff.;
  • movement for, [52] ff.;
  • nature of, [152] ff.
• Constitutional law, interpretation of, [13] ff.
• Contracts, provision for safeguarding, [179] ff.
• Convention, at Philadelphia, called, [63];
  • movement for, [52] ff.;
  • method of electing delegates, [64]; 73 ff.
• Creditors, consolidation of, [32].
• Currency, depreciation of, [31].
• Davie, William R., economic interests of, [84];
  • political philosophy of, [193].
• Dayton, Jonathan, economic interests of, [85].
• Debt, Public, see Securities.
• Debtors, political schemes, [28];
  • war on creditors, [31] ff.;
  • in revolt in New England, [59].
• Delaware, suffrage qualification, [68];
  • elections to state convention, [230];
  • vote on the Constitution, [230];
  • voters for members of convention, [241];
  • ratification of the Constitution, [272].
• Depreciation, of securities, [32].
• Dickinson, John, economic interests of, [87];
  • political philosophy of, [194].
• Disfranchised, the, [24] ff.
• Economic interests, appealed to, in behalf of the Constitution, [53].
• Economic interpretation of history, [5] ff.;
  • of law, [7] ff.;
  • of constitutional law, [13];
  • Madison’s, [14] ff.; 156 ff.
• Elections, popular, feared, [214];
  • annual, [216];
  • popular vote on the Constitution, [239] ff.;
  • to state conventions, [226] ff.;
  • number voting in, [242] ff.;
  • see Suffrage.
• Ellsworth, Oliver, economic interests of, [88];
  • political philosophy of, [196];
  • on ratification, [220].
• Executive, veto power, [213]; 192, [193], [195], [197], [198], [199], [201], [202], [203], [210], [211], [212], [213], [214], [215], [216].
• Farms, mortgaged, [22];
  • small, [27].
• Federalist, The, on the Constitution, [152] ff.
• Few, William, economic interests of, [90].
• Fitzsimons, Thomas, [41];
  • economic interests of, [91];
  • political philosophy of, [196].
• Franklin, Benjamin, on conditions of the country in 1787, [47];
  • and land speculation, [49];
  • economic interests of, [92];
  • political philosophy of, [197].
• Freeholders, dangers from, [71];
  • best guardians of liberty, [195]; 189–216 passim;
  • see Suffrage and Elections.
• Georgia, suffrage qualifications, [70];
  • elections to state convention, [236];
  • vote on the Constitution, [236];
  • voters for members of convention, [241];
  • reasons for speedy ratification, [290].
• Gerry, Elbridge, views on the Cincinnati, [38];
  • economic interests of, [95];
  • political philosophy of, [197];
  • on property qualifications, [167].
• Gilman, Nicholas, economic interests of, [93].
• Gorham, Nathaniel, economic interests of, [99];
  • political philosophy of, [198];
  • on ratification, [219].
• Hamilton, Alexander, views on the working-class, [25];
  • estimate of debt, [33];
  • economic interests of, [100];
  • political philosophy of, [199];
  • on ratification, [222].
• Henry, Patrick, and land speculation, [49].
• History, interpretation of, [1] ff.
• Holmes, Justice, economic views cited, [9] n.
• Houston, W. C., economic interests of, [114].
• Houstoun, William, economic interests of, [115];
  • political philosophy of, [200].
• Ingersoll, Jared, economic interests of, [116];
  • political philosophy of, [200].
• Jenifer, Daniel, [116].
• Jhering, work cited, [14] n.
• Johnson, W. S., economic interests of, [117].
• Judicial control, nature of, [162], [196];
  • Spaight against, [214]; 216.
• King, Rufus, economic interests of, [118];
  • political philosophy of, [201];
  • on ratification, [218].
• Knox, General, believes the Confederation is in ruins, [58]; 301.
• Land, policy, [27];
  • western, speculation in, [23], [49];
  • members of the Convention, interests in, [151].
• Langdon, John, economic interests of, [120].
• Lansing, John, economic interests of, [123].
• Lassalle, cited, [14] n.
• Law, interpretation in the United States, [7] ff.;
  • England, [7].
• Libby, O. G., work on the Constitution, [5].
• Livingston, William, economic interests of, [123];
  • political philosophy of, [201].
• Madison, James, interpretation of history and politics, [14] ff.;
  • on universal suffrage, [25];
  • on the dissolution of the Confederation, [60];
  • on the Annapolis convention, [62];
  • economic interests of, [125];
  • political philosophy of, [156];
  • on property qualifications, [165], [167];
  • on ratification, [222];
  • view as to causes of opposition to Constitution, [293].
• Maitland, and economic interpretation, [8] n.
• Majority rule, devices for checking, [156] ff.
• Manufacturing, [23];
  • demands for protection, [41] ff.; 175.
• Marshall, opinion as to nature of the Constitution cited, [10];
  • on the obligation of contracts, [181] f.; 287;
  • analysis of the conflict over the Constitution, [295] ff.
• Martin, Alexander, economic interests of, [126].
• Martin, Luther, and debtors, [28];
  • economic interests of, [126];
  • political philosophy of, [205].
• Maryland, petitions for protection, [43];
  • suffrage qualifications, [69];
  • elections to state convention, [234];
  • vote on the Constitution, [235];
  • voters for members of convention, [241];
  • vote on Constitution in, [247];
  • economic interests and ratification of the Constitution, [281];
  • conflict over ratification, [316] ff.
• Mason, George, economic interests of, [127];
  • political philosophy of, [205].
• Massachusetts, tax returns in, [31];
  • rebellion in, [59];
  • suffrage qualifications, [65];
  • elections to state convention, [226];
  • vote on the Constitution, [227];
  • voters for members of convention, [240];
  • elections in, [242];
  • economic interests and ratification of the Constitution, [257] ff.;
  • public securities in, [261];
  • conflict over ratification, [301] ff.
• McClurg, James, economic interests of, [130];
  • political philosophy of, [203].
• McHenry, James, economic interests of, [130];
  • political philosophy of, [204];
  • elected to the Maryland convention, [247].
• Mercer, J. F., economic interests of, [131];
  • political philosophy of, [207].
• Merchants, petition for adequate naval protection, [56].
• Mifflin, Thomas, economic interests of, [132].
• Minority, rights of the, [156] ff.; 322.
• Monarchy, favored by Dickinson, [195].
• Money, distribution of, [31];
  • paper, [28] ff.;
  • forbidden in the Constitution, [179]; 281.
• Money-lending, [28].
• Monroe, on the Annapolis convention, [62].
• Morley, on Macaulay, [4] n.
• Morris, Gouverneur, economic interests of, [133];
  • political philosophy of, [207];
  • on property qualifications, [166];
  • view of conflict in Pennsylvania, [311].
• Morris, Robert, and land speculation, [49];
  • economic interests of, [133];
  • political philosophy of, [209].
• Navy, see Army.
• New England, rebellion in, [59].
• New Hampshire, tax returns in, [31];
  • suffrage qualifications, [65];
  • elections to state convention, [225];
  • vote on the Constitution, [226];
  • voters for members of state convention, [240];
  • economic interests and the Constitution, [254];
  • conflict over ratification, [300].
• New Jersey, suffrage qualifications in, [68];
  • elections to state convention, [230];
  • vote on the Constitution, [230];
  • voters for members of convention, [241];
  • economic interests and ratification of the Constitution, [271] f.;
  • public securities in, [271].
• New York, petitions for protection, [43];
  • suffrage qualifications, [67];
  • number of voters in, [67];
  • elections to state convention, [229];
  • vote on the Constitution, [229];
  • demand for a second national Convention, [229];
  • voters for members of convention, [241];
  • popular vote on the Constitution, [244];
  • economic interests and ratification of the Constitution, [268] ff.;
  • public securities in, [270];
  • conflict over ratification, [309].
• North Carolina, suffrage qualifications, [69];
  • elections to state convention, [235];
  • ratification of Constitution deferred, [235];
  • ratification, [236];
  • voters for members of convention, [241];
  • economic interests and ratification of the Constitution, [287] f.;
  • conflict over ratification, [319].
• Paper money, [28] ff.
• Paterson, William, [136], [209], [222].
• Pennsylvania, suffrage qualifications, [68];
  • elections to state convention, [231];
  • vote on the Constitution, [233];
  • conflict over ratification, [231] ff.;
  • voters for members of convention, [241];
  • popular vote on the Constitution, [246];
  • economic interests and ratification of the Constitution, [273] ff.;
  • public securities in, [274];
  • conflict over ratification, [310] ff.
• Personal property, distribution of, in the United States, [19] ff.
• Philadelphia, petitions for protection, [40], [44];
  • residents seek relief from financial disorders, [57];
  • popular vote in, [247].
• Pierce, William, economic interests of, [137];
  • political philosophy of, [209].
• Pinckney, Charles, economic interests of, [138];
  • political philosophy of, [210].
• Pinckney, C. C., economic interests of, [137];
  • political philosophy of, [211].
• Pound, Professor, writings cited, [9].
• Powers, balance of, [159] ff.
• President, see Executive.
• Property, rights of, [156] ff.;
  • qualifications on voters and officers, [164] ff.;
  • position under the Constitution, [176];
  • qualifications for officers, [213];
  • see Suffrage and Elections.
• Protection, for manufacturing, demanded, [40];
  • for trade, [175].
• Public securities, records of, at Treasury Department, [20].
• Randolph, Edmund, economic interests of, [139];
  • political philosophy of, [212];
  • on ratification, [219].
• Ratification, see separate states;
  • plan suggested by the Convention, [217];
  • accepted by Congress, [217];
  • criticism and defence of, [218] ff.;
  • accepted by the states, [225].
• Read, George, economic interests of, [140];
  • political philosophy of, [213].
• Real property, groups of interests, [26] ff.
• Referendum, [239].
• Representatives, House of, [160], [162], [191], [192], [197], [199], [207], [210], [212].
• Rhode Island, ratification of the Constitution, [237].
• Rutledge, John, economic interests of, [141];
  • political philosophy of, [213].
• Schuyler, Philip, demands a national convention, [55], [108].
• Securities, Public, amount of, [32] f.;
  • depreciation of, [32];
  • gain in appreciation of, [34] ff.;
  • members of the Convention holding, [149] f.;
  • in Massachusetts, [261] ff.;
  • in Connecticut, [266] f.;
  • in New York, [270];
  • in New Jersey, [271];
  • in Pennsylvania, [273];
  • in Virginia, [286];
  • in North Carolina, [287];
  • in South Carolina, [289].
• Senate, [161], [162];
  • and property, [190], [192], [199], [206], [211], [212], [213];
  • see Senators.
• Senators, life term proposed, [213];
  • term of, [214];
  • popular election, [216].
• Shays’ Rebellion, [39].
• Sherman, Roger, economic interests of, [142];
  • political philosophy of, [213];
  • view of plan of ratification, [218].
• Slave-holders, interest in the Constitution, [29].
• Slaves, members of the Convention holding, [151];
  • danger of revolt, [174];
  • trade in, discussed in the Convention, [176];
  • Rutledge’s view of, [213].
• Smith, Melancton, [246].
• South Carolina, suffrage qualifications, [70];
  • popular vote on the Constitution, [248];
  • elections to state convention, [236];
  • vote on the Constitution, [236];
  • voters for members of Convention, [241];
  • economic interests and ratification of the Constitution, [288] f.;
  • public securities in, [289];
  • conflict over ratification, [321].
• Spaight, R. D., economic interests of, [143];
  • political philosophy of, [214].
• States, restrictions on, [178] ff.;
  • causes of conflict among, [186] ff.
• Stock Exchange, founding of, [35].
• Strong, Caleb, economic interests of, [144];
  • political philosophy of, [214].
• Suffrage, qualifications on, in 1787, [64] ff.;
  • discussed in the Convention, [164] ff., [190] ff.;
  • manhood in New York, [241];
  • for electors voting on the Constitution, [240] f.;
  • number disfranchised, [242].
• Taxation, absence of power under the Confederation, [52];
  • power conferred by the Constitution, [169];
  • interpretation of the system, [170];
  • Hamilton on, [171].
• Territories, provisions for, in the Constitution, [175].
• Teutonic school, interpretation of history, [2].
• Tories, [240].
• Turner, Professor, historical interpretation, [5].
• Veto, absolute, proposed, [213].
• Veto power, [215].
• Virginia, suffrage qualifications, [69];
  • elections to state convention, [235];
  • vote on the Constitution, [235];
  • voters for members of Convention, [241];
  • economic interests and ratification of the Constitution, [282] ff.;
  • public securities in, [286];
  • conflict over ratification, [318].
• Vote, popular, see Elections.
• Washington, George, and the Cincinnati, [39];
  • and land speculation, [49];
  • fears for the safety of the country, [58];
  • economic interests of, [144];
  • political philosophy of, [215].
• Williamson, Hugh, and land speculation, [23], [50];
  • economic interests of, [146];
  • political philosophy of, [215].
• Wilson, James, economic interests of, [147];
  • political philosophy of, [215].
• Wilson, Woodrow, description of the movement for the Constitution, [61].
• Women, legal position of, [24].
• Working-class, and politics, [25].
• Wythe, George, economic interests of, [148];
  • political philosophy of, [216].

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[1]. The History of the Constitution of the United States (1882 ed.), Vol. II, p. 284.

[2]. American Historical Review, Vol. II, p. 13.

[3]. Bancroft, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 6.

[4]. It has been left to a Russian to explain to Englishmen the origin of Teutonism in historical writing. See the introduction to Vinogradoff, Villainage in England. W. J. Ashley, in his preface to the translation of Fustel de Coulanges, Origin of Property in Land, throws some light on the problem, but does not attempt a systematic study.

[5]. Note the painstaking documentation for the first chapters in Stubbs’ great work.

[6]. What Morley has said of Macaulay is true of many eminent American historical writers: “A popular author must, in a thoroughgoing way, take the accepted maxims for granted. He must suppress any whimsical fancy for applying the Socratic elenchus; or any other engine of criticism, scepticism, or verification to those sentiments or current precepts or morals which may in truth be very equivocal and may be much neglected in practice, but which the public opinion of his time requires to be treated in theory and in literature as if they had been cherished and held semper, ubique, et ab omnibus.” Miscellanies, Vol. I, p. 272.

[7]. For instance, intimate connections can be shown between the vogue of Darwinism and the competitive ideals of the mid-Victorian middle-class in England. Darwin got one of his leading ideas, the struggle for existence, from Malthus, who originated it as a club to destroy the social reformers, Godwin, Condorcet, and others, and then gave it a serious scientific guise as an afterthought.