The Power of Movement in Plants

by Charles Darwin; Sir Francis Darwin

The cotyledons can now assume the function of leaves, and decompose carbonic acid; they also yield up to other parts of the plant the nutriment which they often contain. When they contain a large stock of nutriment they generally remain buried beneath the ground, owing to the small development of the hypocotyl; and thus they have a better chance of escaping destruction by animals. From unknown causes, nutriment is sometimes stored in the hypocotyl or in the radicle, and then one of the cotyledons or both become rudimentary, of which several instances have been given. It is probable that the extraordinary manner of germination of Megarrhiza Californica, Ipomœa leptophylla and pandurata, and of Quercus virens, is connected with the burying of the tuber-like roots, which at an early age are stocked with nutriment; for in these plants it is the petioles of the cotyledons which first protrude from the seeds, and they are then merely tipped with a minute radicle and hypocotyl. These petioles bend down geotropically like a root and penetrate the ground, so that the true root, which afterwards becomes greatly enlarged, is buried at some little depth beneath the surface. Gradations of structure are always interesting, and Asa Gray informs us that with Ipomœa Jalappa, which likewise forms huge tubers, the hypocotyl is still of considerable length, and the petioles of the cotyledons are only moderately elongated. But in addition to the advantage gained by the concealment of the nutritious matter stored within the tubers, the plumule, at least in the case of Megarrhiza, is protected from the frosts of winter by being buried.

With many dicotyledonous seedlings, as has lately been described by De Vries, the contraction of the parenchyma of the upper part of the radicle drags the hypocotyl downwards into the earth; sometimes (it is said) until even the cotyledons are buried. The hypocotyl itself of some species contracts in a like manner. It is believed that this burying process serves to protect the seedlings against the frosts of winter.

Our imaginary seedling is now mature as a seedling, for its hypocotyl is straight and its cotyledons are fully expanded. In this state the upper part of the hypocotyl and the cotyledons continue for some time to circumnutate, generally to a wide extent relatively to the size of the parts, and at a rapid rate. But seedlings profit by this power of movement only when it is modified, especially by the action of light and gravitation; for they are thus enabled to move more rapidly and to a greater extent than can most mature plants. Seedlings are subjected to a severe struggle for life, and it appears to be highly important to them that they should adapt themselves as quickly and as perfectly as possible to their conditions. Hence also it is that they are so extremely sensitive to light and gravitation. The cotyledons of some few species are sensitive to a touch; but it is probable that this is only an indirect result of the foregoing kinds of sensitiveness, for there is no reason to believe that they profit by moving when touched.

Our seedling now throws up a stem bearing leaves, and often branches, all of which whilst young are continually circumnutating. If we look, for instance, at a great acacia tree, we may feel assured that every one of the innumerable growing shoots is constantly describing small ellipses; as is each petiole, sub-petiole, and leaflet. The latter, as well as ordinary leaves, generally move up and down in nearly the same vertical plane, so that they describe very narrow ellipses. The flower-peduncles are likewise continually circumnutating. If we could look beneath the ground, and our eyes had the power of a microscope, we should see the tip of each rootlet endeavouring to sweep small ellipses or circles, as far as the pressure of the surrounding earth permitted. All this astonishing amount of movement has been going on year after year since the time when, as a seedling, the tree first emerged from the ground.

Stems are sometimes developed into long runners or stolons. These circumnutate in a conspicuous manner, and are thus aided in passing between and over surrounding obstacles. But whether the circumnutating movement has been increased for this special purpose is doubtful.

We have now to consider circumnutation in a modified form, as the source of several great classes of movement. The modification may be determined by innate causes, or by external agencies. Under the first head we see leaves which, when first unfolded, stand in a vertical position, and gradually bend downwards as they grow older. We see flower-peduncles bending down after the flower has withered, and others rising up; or again, stems with their tips at first bowed downwards, so as to be hooked, afterwards straightening themselves; and many other such cases. These changes of position, which are due to epinasty or hyponasty, occur at certain periods of the life of the plant, and are independent of any external agency. They are effected not by a continuous upward or downward movement, but by a succession of small ellipses, or by zigzag lines,—that is, by a circumnutating movement which is preponderant in some one direction.

Again, climbing plants whilst young circumnutate in the ordinary manner, but as soon as the stem has grown to a certain height, which is different for different species, it elongates rapidly, and now the amplitude of the circumnutating movement is immensely increased, evidently to favour the stem catching hold of a support. The stem also circumnutates rather more equally to all sides than in the case of non-climbing plants. This is conspicuously the case with those tendrils which consist of modified leaves, as these sweep wide circles; whilst ordinary leaves usually circumnutate nearly in the same vertical plane. Flower-peduncles when converted into tendrils have their circumnutating movement in like manner greatly increased.

We now come to our second group of circumnutating movements—those modified through external agencies. The so-called sleep or nyctitropic movements of leaves are determined by the daily alternations of light and darkness. It is not the darkness which excites them to move, but the difference in the amount of light which they receive during the day and night; for with several species, if the leaves have not been brightly illuminated during the day, they do not sleep at night. They inherit, however, some tendency to move at the proper periods, independently of any change in the amount of light. The movements are in some cases extraordinarily complex, but as a full summary has been given in the chapter devoted to this subject, we will here say but little on this head. Leaves and cotyledons assume their nocturnal position by two means, by the aid of pulvini and without such aid. In the former case the movement continues as long as the leaf or cotyledon remains in full health; whilst in the latter case it continues only whilst the part is growing. Cotyledons appear to sleep in a larger proportional number of species than do leaves. In some species, the leaves sleep and not the cotyledons; in others, the cotyledons and not the leaves; or both may sleep, and yet assume widely different positions at night.

Although the nyctitropic movements of leaves and cotyledons are wonderfully diversified, and sometimes differ much in the species of the same genus, yet the blade is always placed in such a position at night, that its upper surface is exposed as little as possible to full radiation. We cannot doubt that this is the object gained by these movements; and it has been proved that leaves exposed to a clear sky, with their blades compelled to remain horizontal, suffered much more from the cold than others which were allowed to assume their proper vertical position. Some curious facts have been given under this head, showing that horizontally extended leaves suffered more at night, when the air, which is not cooled by radiation, was prevented from freely circulating beneath their lower surfaces; and so it was, when the leaves were allowed to go to sleep on branches which had been rendered motionless. In some species the petioles rise up greatly at night, and the pinnae close together. The whole plant is thus rendered more compact, and a much smaller surface is exposed to radiation.

That the various nyctitropic movements of leaves result from modified circumnutation has, we think, been clearly shown. In the simplest cases a leaf describes a single large ellipse during the 24 h.; and the movement is so arranged that the blade stands vertically during the night, and reassumes its former position on the following morning. The course pursued differs from ordinary circumnutation only in its greater amplitude, and in its greater rapidity late in the evening and early on the following morning. Unless this movement is admitted to be one of circumnutation, such leaves do not circumnutate at all, and this would be a monstrous anomaly. In other cases, leaves and cotyledons describe several vertical ellipses during the 24 h.; and in the evening one of them is increased greatly in amplitude until the blade stands vertically either upwards or downwards. In this position it continues to circumnutate until the following morning, when it reassumes its former position. These movements, when a pulvinus is present, are often complicated by the rotation of the leaf or leaflet; and such rotation on a small scale occurs during ordinary circumnutation. The many diagrams showing the movements of sleeping and non-sleeping leaves and cotyledons should be compared, and it will be seen that they are essentially alike. Ordinary circumnutation is converted into a nyctitropic movement, firstly by an increase in its amplitude, but not to so great a degree as in the case of climbing plants, and secondly by its being rendered periodic in relation to the alternations of day and night. But there is frequently a distinct trace of periodicity in the circumnutating movements of non-sleeping leaves and cotyledons. The fact that nyctitropic movements occur in species distributed in many families throughout the whole vascular series, is intelligible, if they result from the modification of the universally present movement of circumnutation; otherwise the fact is inexplicable.