THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED
To E. J. C.
WHOSE INFLUENCE IS A CHIEF
SOURCE OF ANY LITERARY
MERIT IT MAY HAVE
PREFACE
Our life is all one human whole, and if we are to have any real knowledge of it we must see it as such. If we cut it up it dies in the process: and so I conceive that the various branches of research that deal with this whole are properly distinguished by change in the point of sight rather than by any division in the thing that is seen. Accordingly, in a former book (Human Nature and Social Order), I tried to see society as it exists in the social nature of man and to display that in its main outlines. In this one the eye is focussed on the enlargement and diversification of intercourse which I have called Social Organization, the individual, though visible, remaining slightly in the background.
It will be seen from my title and all my treatment that I apprehend the subject on the mental rather than the material side. I by no means, however, overlook or wish to depreciate the latter, to which I am willing to ascribe all the importance that any one can require for it. Our task as students of society is a large one, and each of us, I suppose, may undertake any part of it to which he feels at all competent.
Ann Arbor, Mich., February, 1909.
CONTENTS
| PART I—PRIMARY ASPECTS OF ORGANIZATION | |
| CHAPTER I | |
| SOCIAL AND INDIVIDUAL ASPECTS OF MIND | |
| PAGE | |
| Mind an Organic Whole—Conscious and Unconscious Relations—DoesSelf-Consciousness Come First? Cogito, Ergo Sum—TheLarger Introspection—Self-Consciousness in Children—PublicConsciousness | [3] |
| CHAPTER II | |
| SOCIAL AND INDIVIDUAL ASPECTS OF MIND—(CONTINUED) | |
| Moral Aspect of the Organic View—It Implies that ReformShould Be Based on Sympathy—Uses of Praise and Blame—ResponsibilityBroadened but Not Lost—Moral Value ofa Larger View—Organic Morality Calls for Knowledge—Natureof Social Organization | [13] |
| CHAPTER III | |
| PRIMARY GROUPS | |
| Meaning of Primary Groups—Family, Playground, and Neighborhood—HowFar Influenced by Larger Society—Meaningand Permanence of “Human Nature”—Primary Groups theNursery of Human Nature | [23] |
| CHAPTER IV | |
| PRIMARY IDEALS | |
| Nature of Primary Idealism—The Ideal of a “We” or MoralUnity—It Does Not Exclude Self-Assertion—Ideals Springingfrom Hostility—Loyalty, Truth, Service—Kindness—Lawfulness—Freedom—TheDoctrine of Natural Right—Bearingof Primary Idealism upon Education and Philanthropy | [32] |
| CHAPTER V | |
| THE EXTENSION OF PRIMARY IDEALS | |
| Primary Ideals Underlie Democracy and Christianity—WhyThey Are Not Achieved on a Larger Scale—What They Requirefrom Personality—From Social Mechanism—ThePrinciple of Compensation | [51] |
| PART II—COMMUNICATION | |
| CHAPTER VI | |
| THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COMMUNICATION | |
| Meaning of Communication—Its Relation to Human Nature—ToSociety at Large | [61] |
| CHAPTER VII | |
| THE GROWTH OF COMMUNICATION | |
| Pre-Verbal Communication—The Rise of Speech—Its Mentaland Social Function—The Function of Writing—Printingand the Modern World—The Non-Verbal Arts | [66] |
| CHAPTER VIII | |
| MODERN COMMUNICATION: ENLARGEMENT AND ANIMATION | |
| Character of Recent Changes—Their General Effect—TheChange in the United States—Organized Gossip—PublicOpinion, Democracy, Internationalism—The Value ofDiffusion—Enlargement of Feeling—Conclusion | [80] |
| CHAPTER IX | |
| MODERN COMMUNICATION: INDIVIDUALITY | |
| The Question—Why Communication Should Foster Individuality—TheContrary or Dead-Level Theory—Reconciliationof These Views—The Outlook as Regards Individuality | [91] |
| CHAPTER X | |
| MODERN COMMUNICATION: SUPERFICIALITY AND STRAIN | |
| Stimulating Effect of Modern Life—Superficiality—Strain—PathologicalEffects | [98] |
| PART III—THE DEMOCRATIC MIND | |
| CHAPTER XI | |
| THE ENLARGEMENT OF CONSCIOUSNESS | |
| Narrowness of Consciousness in Tribal Society—Importance ofFace-to-Face Assembly—Individuality—Subconscious Characterof Wider Relations—Enlargement of Consciousness—Irregularityin Growth—Breadth of Modern Consciousness—Democracy | [107] |
| CHAPTER XII | |
| THE THEORY OF PUBLIC OPINION | |
| Public Opinion as Organization—Agreement Not Essential—PublicOpinion versus Popular Impression—Public ThoughtNot an Average—A Group Is Capable of Expression throughIts Most Competent Members—General and Special PublicOpinion—The Sphere of the Former—Of the Latter—TheTwo Are United in Personality—How Public Opinion Rules—EffectiveRule Based on Moral Unity | [121] |
| CHAPTER XIII | |
| WHAT THE MASSES CONTRIBUTE | |
| The Masses the Initiators of Sentiment—They Live in the CentralCurrent of Experience—Distinction or Privilege Apt toCause Isolation—Institutional Character of Upper Classes—TheMasses Shrewd Judges of Persons—This the MainGround for Expecting that the People Will Be Right in theLong Run—Democracy Always Representative—Conclusion | [135] |
| CHAPTER XIV | |
| DEMOCRACY AND CROWD EXCITEMENT | |
| The Crowd-Theory of Modern Life—The Psychology of Crowds—ModernConditions Favor Psychological Contagion—Democracya Training in Self-Control—The Crowd Not Alwaysin the Wrong—Conclusion; the Case of France | [149] |
| CHAPTER XV | |
| DEMOCRACY AND DISTINCTION | |
| The Problem—Democracy Should Be Distinguished fromTransition—The Dead-Level Theory of Democracy—Confusionand Its Effects—“Individualism” May Not Be Favorableto Distinguished Individuality—Contemporary Uniformity—RelativeAdvantages of America and Europe—Haste,Superficiality, Strain—Spiritual Economy of a SettledOrder—Commercialism—Zeal for Diffusion—Conclusion | [157] |
| CHAPTER XVI | |
| THE TREND OF SENTIMENT | |
| Meaning and General Trend of Sentiment—Attenuation—Refinement—Senseof Justice—Truth as Justice—As RealismAs Expediency—As Economy of Attention—Hopefulness | [177] |
| CHAPTER XVII | |
| THE TREND OF SENTIMENT—(CONTINUED) | |
| Nature of the Sentiment of Brotherhood—Favored by Communicationand Settled Principles—How Far ContemporaryLife Fosters It—How Far Uncongenial to It—General Outcomein this Regard—The Spirit of Service—The Trend ofManners—Brotherhood in Relation to Conflict—Blame—Democracyand Christianity | [189] |
| PART IV—SOCIAL CLASSES | |
| CHAPTER XVIII | |
| THE HEREDITARY OR CASTE PRINCIPLE | |
| Nature and Use of Classes—Inheritance and Competition theTwo Principles upon which Classes Are Based—Conditionsin Human Nature Making for Hereditary Classes—CasteSpirit | [209] |
| CHAPTER XIX | |
| CONDITIONS FAVORING OR OPPOSING THE GROWTH OF CASTE | |
| Three Conditions Affecting the Increase or Diminution of Caste—Race-Caste—Immigrationand Conquest—Gradual Differentiationof Functions; Mediæval Caste; India—Influenceof Settled Conditions—Influence of the State ofCommunication and Enlightenment—Conclusion | [217] |
| CHAPTER XX | |
| THE OUTLOOK REGARDING CASTE | |
| The Question—How Far the Inheritance Principle ActuallyPrevails—Influences Favoring Its Growth—Those AntagonizingIt—The Principles of Inheritance and Equal Opportunityas Affecting Social Efficiency—Conclusion | [229] |
| CHAPTER XXI | |
| OPEN CLASSES | |
| The Nature of Open Classes—Whether Class-Consciousness IsDesirable—Fellowship and Coöperation Deficient in OurSociety—Class Organization in Relation to Freedom | [239] |
| CHAPTER XXII | |
| HOW FAR WEALTH IS THE BASIS OF OPEN CLASSES | |
| Impersonal Character of Open Classes—Various Classifications—Classes,as Commonly Understood, Based on Obvious Distinctions—Wealthas Generalized Power—Economic Bettermentas an Ideal of the Ill-Paid Classes—Conclusion | [248] |
| CHAPTER XXIII | |
| ON THE ASCENDENCY OF A CAPITALIST CLASS | |
| The Capitalist Class—Its Lack of Caste Sentiment—In WhatSense “the Fittest”—Moral Traits—How Far Based on Service—Autocraticand Democratic Principles in the Controlof Industry—Reasons for Expecting an Increase of theDemocratic Principle—Social Power in General—OrganizingCapacity—Nature and Sources of Capitalist Power—Powerover the Press and over Public Sentiment—Upper ClassAtmosphere | [256] |
| CHAPTER XXIV | |
| ON THE ASCENDENCY OF A CAPITALIST CLASS—(CONTINUED) | |
| The Influence of Ambitious Young Men—Security of the DominantClass in an Open System—Is There Danger of Anarchyand Spoliation?—Whether the Sway of Riches Is GreaterNow than Formerly—Whether Greater in America than inEngland | [273] |
| CHAPTER XXV | |
| THE ORGANIZATION OF THE ILL-PAID CLASSES | |
| The Need of Class Organization—Uses and Dangers of Unions—GeneralDisposition of the Hand-Working Classes | [284] |
| CHAPTER XXVI | |
| POVERTY | |
| The Meaning of Poverty—Personal and General Causes—Povertyin a Prosperous Society Due Chiefly to Maladjustment—Arethe Poor the “Unfit”?—Who Is to Blame for Poverty?—Attitudeof Society toward the Poor—FundamentalRemedies | [290] |
| CHAPTER XXVII | |
| HOSTILE FEELING BETWEEN CLASSES | |
| Conditions Producing Class Animosity—The Spirit of ServiceAllays Bitterness—Possible Decrease of the Prestige ofWealth—Probability of a More Communal Spirit in theUse of Wealth—Influence of Settled Rules for Social Opposition—Importanceof Face-to-Face Discussion | [301] |
| PART V—INSTITUTIONS | |
| CHAPTER XXVIII | |
| INSTITUTIONS AND THE INDIVIDUAL | |
| The Nature of Institutions—Hereditary and Social Factors—TheChild and the World—Society and Personality—Personalityversus the Institution—The Institution as a Basis ofPersonality—The Moral Aspect—Choice versus Mechanism—Personalitythe Life of Institutions—Institutions BecomingFreer in Structure | [313] |
| CHAPTER XXIX | |
| INSTITUTIONS AND THE INDIVIDUAL—(CONTINUED) | |
| Innovation as a Personal Tendency—Innovation and Conservatismas Public Habit—Solidarity—French and Anglo-SaxonSolidarity—Tradition and Convention—Not so Opposite asThey Appear—Real Difference, in this Regard, betweenModern and Mediæval Society—Traditionalism and Conventionalismin Modern Life | [327] |
| CHAPTER XXX | |
| FORMALISM AND DISORGANIZATION | |
| The Nature of Formalism—Its Effect upon Personality—Formalismin Modern Life—Disorganization, “Individualism”—Howit Affects the Individual—Relation to Formalism—“Individualism”Implies Defective Sympathy—Contemporary“Individualism”—Restlessness under Discomfort—TheBetter Aspect of Disorganization | [342] |
| CHAPTER XXXI | |
| DISORGANIZATION: THE FAMILY | |
| Old and New Régimes in the Family—The Declining Birth-Rate—“Spoiled”Children—The Opening of New Careers toWomen—European and American Points of View—PersonalFactors in Divorce—Institutional Factors—Conclusion | [356] |
| CHAPTER XXXII | |
| DISORGANIZATION: THE CHURCH | |
| The Psychological View of Religion—The Need of SocialStructure—Creeds—Why Symbols Tend to Become Formal—Traitsof a Good System of Symbols—ContemporaryNeed of Religion—Newer Tendencies in the Church | [372] |
| CHAPTER XXXIII | |
| DISORGANIZATION: OTHER TRADITIONS | |
| Disorder in the Economic System—In Education—In HigherCulture—In the Fine Arts | [383] |
| PART VI—PUBLIC WILL | |
| CHAPTER XXXIV | |
| THE FUNCTION OF PUBLIC WILLPublic and Private Will—The Lack of Public Will—SocialWrongs Commonly Not Willed at All | [395] |
| CHAPTER XXXV | |
| GOVERNMENT AS PUBLIC WILL | |
| Government Not the Only Agent of Public Will—The RelativePoint of View; Advantages of Government as an Agent—MechanicalTendency of Government—Characteristics Favorableto Government Activity—Municipal Socialism—Self-Expressionthe Fundamental Demand of the People—ActualExtension of State Functions | [402] |
| CHAPTER XXXVI | |
| SOME PHASES OF THE LARGER WILL | |
| Growing Efficiency of the Intellectual Processes—OrganicIdealism—The Larger Morality—Indirect Service—IncreasingSimplicity and Flexibility in Social Structure—PublicWill Saves Part of the Cost of Change—Human Nature theGuiding Force behind Public Will | [411] |
| Index | [421] |
PART I
PRIMARY ASPECTS OF ORGANIZATION
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION