In this book submarine tunnels will be classified as follows: (1) Tunnels in rock or very compact soils, which are driven by any of the ordinary methods of tunneling similar materials on land; (2) tunnels in loose soils, which may be driven, (a) by compressed air, (b) by shields, or (c) by shields and compressed air combined; (3) tunnels on the river bed, which are constructed, (a) by cofferdams, or (b) by caissons. To illustrate tunnels of the first class, the River Severn tunnel in England has been selected; to illustrate those of the second class, the several tunnels discussed in the chapter on the shield system of tunneling and the Milwaukee tunnel is sufficient; to illustrate those of the third class, the Van Buren Street tunnel in Chicago, the Harlem, the Seine and the Detroit River tunnels are selected.
THE SEVERN TUNNEL.
The Severn tunnel, which carries the Great Western Railway of England, beneath the estuary of a large river, is 4 miles 642 yards long. It penetrates strata of conglomerate, limestone, carboniferous beds, marl, gravel, and sand at a minimum depth of 443⁄4 ft. below the deepest portion of the estuary bed. The following description of the work is abstracted from a paper by Mr. L. F. Vernon-Harcourt.[12]
[12] Proceedings Inst. C. E., vol. cxxi.
The first work was the sinking of a shaft, 15 ft. in diameter, lined with brickwork, on the Monmouthshire bank of the Severn, 200 ft. deep. After the Monmouthshire shaft had been sunk, a heading 7 ft. square was driven under the river, rising with a gradient of 1 in 500 from the shaft on the Monmouthshire shore, so as to drain the lowest part of the tunnel. Near to the first, a second shaft was sunk and tubbed with iron, in which the pumps were placed for removing the water from the tunnel works, connection being made by a cross-heading with the heading from the first shaft. There was also a shaft on the Gloucestershire shore; and two shafts inland from the first on the Monmouthshire side, to expedite the construction of the tunnel. Headings were then driven in both directions along the line of the tunnel, from the four shafts; and the drainage heading from the old shaft was continued, in the line of the tunnel, under the deep channel of the estuary, and up the ascending gradient towards the Gloucestershire shore, till, in October, 1879, it had reached to within about 130 yards of the end of the descending heading from the Gloucestershire shaft. During this period, though the work had progressed slowly, no large quantity of water had been met with in any of the headings, in spite of their already extending under almost the whole width of the estuary. On October 18, 1889, however, a great spring was tapped by the heading which was being driven landwards from the old shaft, about 40 ft. above the level of the drainage heading; and the water poured out from this land spring in such quantity that, flowing along the heading, falling down the old shaft, and thus finding its way into the drainage heading and the long heading of the tunnel under the estuary in connection with it, it flooded the whole of the workings in communication with the old shaft, which it also filled within twenty-four hours from the piercing of the spring.
To obtain increased security against any influx of water from the deep channel of the estuary into the tunnel, the proposed level portion of the tunnel, rather more than a furlong long under this part, was lowered 15 ft. by increasing the descending gradient on the Monmouthshire side from 1 in 100 to 1 in 90, and lowering the proposed rail level on the Gloucestershire side 15 ft. throughout the ascent, so as not to increase the gradient of 1 in 100 against the load. A new shaft, 18 ft. in diameter, was sunk slightly nearer the estuary on the Monmouthshire shore than the old one; two shafts also were sunk on the land side of the great spring for pumping purposes; and additional pumping machinery was erected. The flow from the spring into the old shaft was arrested by a shield of oak fixed across the heading; and at last, after numerous failures and breakdowns of the pumps, the headings were cleared of water, after a diver, supplied with a knapsack of compressed oxygen, had closed a door in the long heading under the estuary; and the works were resumed nearly fourteen months after the flooding occurred. The great spring was then shut off from the workings by a wall across the heading leading to the old shaft; and, owing to the lowering of the level of the tunnel, a new drainage heading had to be driven from the bottom of the new shaft at a lower level, which was made 5 ft. in diameter, and lined with brickwork, whilst the old drainage heading was enlarged to 9 ft. in diameter, and lined with brickwork, so as to aid in the permanent ventilation of the tunnel. The lowering of the level, moreover, converted the bottom tunnel headings into top headings, so that along more than a mile of the tunnel the semicircular arch, 26 ft. in diameter, was built first, and then, after lowering the headings, the invert was laid and the side walls were built up. Bottom headings were driven along the remainder of the tunnel, and the work was expedited by means of break-ups. Ventilation was effected in the works by a fan 18 inches in diameter and 7 ft. wide, fixed at the top of the new deep shaft; the rock was bored by drills worked by compressed air; the blasting was eventually effected exclusively by tonite, owing to its being freer from deleterious fumes than any other explosive; and the workings were lighted by Swan and Brush electric lamps. The tunnel is lined throughout with vitrified brickwork, between 21⁄4 ft. to 3 ft. thick, set in cement, and has an invert 11⁄2 ft. to 3 ft. in thickness; the lining was commenced towards the end of 1880, the headings under the river were joined in September, 1881, and the last length of the tunnel, across the line of the great spring, was completed in April, 1885.
Water came in from the river through a hole in a pool of the estuary, close to the Gloucestershire shore, in April, 1881, during the lining of a portion of the tunnel, but fortunately before the headings were joined. This influx was stopped by allowing the water to rise in the tunnel to tide-level, to prevent the enlargement of the hole, which was then filled up at low water with clay, weighted on the top with clay in bags. The great spring broke out again in October, 1883, and flooded the works a second time; but within four weeks the water had been pumped out and the spring again imprisoned. During this period an exceptionally high tide, raised still higher by a southwesterly gale, inundated the low-lying land on the Monmouthshire side of the estuary, and, flowing down one of the inland shafts, flooded a section of the tunnel, but the pumps removed this water within a week.
In order to construct the portion of tunnel traversing the line of the great spring, the water was diverted into a side heading below the level of the tunnel, leading to the old shaft, whence it was pumped, and the fissure below the tunnel was filled with concrete, over which the invert was built. An attempt to imprison the spring, on the completion of this length of tunnel, having resulted in imposing an excessive pressure on the brickwork, leading to fractures and leakage, a shaft, 29 ft. in diameter, was sunk at the side of the tunnel at this point in 1886, and pumps were erected powerful enough to deal with the entire flow of the spring.
The tunnel was opened for traffic in December, 1886, and gives access to a double line of railway, connecting the lines converging to Bristol with the South Wales railway and the western lines. The pumping power provided at the shaft connected with the great spring, and at four other shafts, is capable of raising 66,000,000 gallons of water per day, the maximum amount pumped from the tunnel being 30,000,000 gallons a day. The ventilation of the tunnel is effected by fans placed in the two main shafts on each bank of the estuary, and the fan in the Monmouthshire shaft is 40 ft. in diameter, and 12 ft. wide. The tunnel gives passage to a large traffic, numerous through-trains between the north and southwest of England making use of it.