A history of commerce

by Clive Day

374. The great wares of commerce. Coal.—For the purpose of a summary survey the most important wares of commerce before 1800 can be designated as belonging to the two classes, colonial products and textiles. We shall have to note, in ensuing sections, striking changes affecting both of these classes, and the addition to the important wares of commerce of two new classes, mineral products and foodstuffs.

Taking first the mineral products, and including coal with them, as common usage justifies us in doing, we find, at first sight, that this article takes a far lower rank among the modern wares than we should expect from its commanding importance in industrial life. There has been, it is true, a great growth in the coal trade, and considerable quantities are exported from England, Belgium, Germany, on occasion the United States, etc., for use in countries lacking coal mines, or at sea. There is an immense internal commerce in coal. In 1900 more than half of the tonnage carried on the railroads of the United States consisted of mining products; and of these coal certainly formed a very considerable, perhaps the major, part. Still coal does not rank among the chief wares of foreign trade.

375. Metals and Manufactures.—An explanation of the comparative insignificance of coal in foreign trade is found in its bulk. An active industrial people can compress the value of coal, as it were, by using it near the mines for the production and transformation of other materials. Coal is transmuted into iron and manufactures, and so loses its identity, though it remains still the real power behind the exports of that character.

Commerce in iron and steel, and the manufactures depending on them, has increased enormously in the course of the century, as the reader may readily suppose. Supplies of iron and machinery flow from the centers of production to the less advanced countries, and the simpler tools penetrate every nook and corner of the earth. Copper has grown greatly in importance, as its use for electrical appliances has extended, and now forms a considerable item in exchanges of countries like the United States and Germany.

376. Petroleum.—Nor is the new commercial significance of mineral products confined to the metals. In the last half century the trade in mineral oil (petroleum, “kerosene”) has become a necessary part of the world’s economy. One result of the great improvements in manufactures and transportation was a demand, from all sides, for more light. Artificial illumination was needed for the full utilization of machinery and means of transportation; and to provide light for the newspaper reading, study, and recreation to which people gave themselves in increasing numbers. The first half of the century witnessed many improvements: the invention of matches, the introduction of glass lamp-chimneys, the spread of gas lighting, and the use of new oils for illumination. No previous advance, however, compares in importance with the discovery that crude petroleum could be made the source of a cheap and efficient means of illumination. The development of the petroleum trade in the space of little more than a generation is a matter of common knowledge, and is readily explained by the importance of the service which it performs.

377. The grain trade; slight development before 1800.—Important and characteristic as the trade in mineral products has grown to be in the nineteenth century, it is still far from first place among the branches of the world’s commerce. The primacy belongs, without question, to the trade in foodstuffs, especially grain.

Before the development of the modern system of transportation commerce in foodstuffs concerned itself largely with the condiments rather than the aliments, with spices and seasoning rather than the substantial food staples. Even at a freight rate of 15 cents per ton-mile (and the expense of transportation on European roads before 1800 was certainly far above that), wheat at $1.50 a bushel would be limited to a trade-radius of 330 miles; the whole value of the wheat would be consumed in transporting it that distance. Transportation by sea was, of course, much less costly, and enabled limited amounts of food to be imported under favorable conditions. Still, food has to be grown on land, and often on land distant from any means of water carriage; and the countries of Europe were forced in general to a policy of self-sufficiency, raising the requisite supplies of food at home under conditions however unfavorable. We may appreciate the short space of time separating us from this state of affairs by noting that in France, even in 1817, people were dying of famine in Lorraine, while wheat was abundant in Brittany; the carriage of provisions from one province to the other quadrupled prices. In Russia, even later (Pskov, 1845), the same conditions prevailed.

378. Extent and importance of the grain trade at present.—Grain formed, therefore, one of the least considerable of the wares of foreign commerce before 1800. A French economist estimated the international trade in grain at 30 million bushels at most. From that figure, comparatively insignificant, the grain trade of the world had risen, even in 1887, to over 1,500 million bushels; grain formed then, in value, almost one tenth of the total of the wares of trade, and in importance far exceeded any other ware. The expense of transportation had undergone such a vast diminution that one day’s wages of a common laborer would pay for the carriage over a thousand miles of all the grain and meat which he needed for a year’s subsistence.

It would be interesting, if time permitted, to note the far-reaching social and political effects of this revolution. We must, however, confine ourselves to its economic aspect. The English people, to take the most striking example, depend for more than half of their food supply, perhaps two thirds of their wheat supply, on imports from abroad. It is said that in every month in the year wheat is harvested in some country, of the northern or of the southern hemisphere, for the English market; a Floating Cargoes List reported 163 vessels bound for England with cereals, at sea at one time. As formerly the citizens of London depended on the farmer of a nearby county for the supply of his daily bread, so now the inhabitants of England in general depend upon people in the Dakotas, in California, in the Argentine Republic, in Egypt, in India, or in Australia. The Englishman is enabled, by commerce, to share in the agricultural advantages of any and all those countries; he applies himself to his specialty and exchanges the product for his food.

379. Commerce in other foodstuffs.—In some respects even more striking, though on the whole of far less importance, has been the growth of foreign commerce in stock and meat. About 1800 the common way of marketing meat was to drive it to market on the hoof; the trip might consume a number of days, and the animal would arrive in poor condition and with weight diminished. For transportation to distant countries meat had to be preserved by pickling in brine. Fresh meat of good quality was a luxury, and the average consumption of meat was small. Modern progress has solved the problem of using the great grazing spaces of North and South America and Australia for the supply of distant peoples, in two ways. Improvements in transportation by land and sea have allowed the carriage of live-stock for thousands of miles, in good condition. The use of refrigerating appliances, especially artificial refrigeration by means of steam power, has permitted the carriage of dead meat the same distance without deterioration. Furthermore, the application of scientific principles to the preservation of meat has enabled supplies of that article to be utilized which would otherwise be wasted, and has contributed a new form of ware to modern trade. Other foodstuffs (fruit and fresh vegetables) have profited by similar advances in the means of transportation and preservation.