And now to return, for a moment, to the question of cell-form. When we assert that the form of a cell (in the absence of mechanical pressure) is essentially dependent on surface tension, and even when we make the preliminary assumption that protoplasm is essentially {292} a fluid, we are resting our belief on a general consensus of evidence, rather than on compliance with any one crucial definition. The simple fact is that the agreement of cell-forms with the forms which physical experiment and mathematical theory assign to liquids under the influence of surface tension, is so frequently and often so typically manifested, that we are led, or driven, to accept the surface tension hypothesis as generally applicable and as equivalent to a universal law. The occasional difficulties or apparent exceptions are such as call for further enquiry, but fall short of throwing doubt upon our hypothesis. Macallum’s researches introduce a new element of certainty, a “nail in a sure place,” when they demonstrate that, in certain movements or changes of form which we should naturally attribute to weakened surface tension, a chemical concentration which would naturally accompany such weakening actually takes place. They further teach us that in the cell a chemical heterogeneity may exist of a very marked kind, certain substances being accumulated here and absent there, within the narrow bounds of the system.
Such localised accumulations can as yet only be demonstrated in the case of a very few substances, and of a single one in particular; and these are substances whose presence does not produce, but whose concentration tends to follow, a weakening of surface tension. The physical cause of the localised inequalities of surface tension remains unknown. We may assume, if we please, that it is due to the prior accumulation, or local production, of chemical bodies which would have this direct effect; though we are by no means limited to this hypothesis.
But in spite of some remaining difficulties and uncertainties, we have arrived at the conclusion, as regards unicellular organisms, that not only their general configuration but also their departures from symmetry may be correlated with the molecular forces manifested in their fluid or semi-fluid surfaces.
CHAPTER VII THE FORMS OF TISSUES OR CELL-AGGREGATES
We now pass from the consideration of the solitary cell to that of cells in contact with one another,—to what we may call in the first instance “cell-aggregates,”—through which we shall be led ultimately to the study of complex tissues. In this part of our subject, as in the preceding chapters, we shall have to give some consideration to the effects of various forces; but, as in the case of the conformation of the solitary cell, we shall probably find, and we may at least begin by assuming, that the agency of surface tension is especially manifest and important. The effect of this surface tension will chiefly manifest itself in the production of surfaces minimae areae: where, as Plateau was always careful to point out, we must understand by this expression not an absolute, but a relative minimum, an area, that is to say, which approximates to an absolute minimum as nearly as circumstances and the conditions of the case permit.
There are certain fundamental principles, or fundamental equations, besides those which we have already considered, which we shall need in our enquiry. For instance the case which we briefly touched upon (on p. [265]) of the angle of contact between the protoplasm and the axial filament in a Heliozoan we shall now find to be but a particular case of a general and elementary theorem.
Let us re-state as follows, in terms of Energy, the general principle which underlies the theory of surface tension or capillarity.
When a fluid is in contact with another fluid, or with a solid or a gas, a portion of the energy of the system (that, namely, which we call surface energy), is proportional to the area of the surface of contact: it is also proportional to a coefficient which is specific for each particular pair of substances, and which is constant for these, save only in so far as it may be modified by {294} changes of temperature or of electric charge. The condition of minimum potential energy in the system, which is the condition of equilibrium, will accordingly be obtained by the utmost possible diminution in the area of the surfaces in contact. When we have three bodies in contact, the case becomes a little more complex. Suppose for instance we have a drop of some fluid, A, floating on another fluid, B, and exposed to air, C. The whole surface energy of the system may now be considered as divided into two parts, one at the surface of the drop, and the other outside of the same; the latter portion is inherent in the surface BC, between the mass of fluid B and the superincumbent air, C; but the former portion consists of two parts, for it is divided between the two surfaces AB and AC, that namely which separates the drop from the surrounding fluid and that which separates it from the atmosphere. So far as
