It was one of the peculiarities of the Irish monastic system to encourage the members to retire occasionally for a lengthened period to some solitary place, where they might do penance and worship undisturbed. These places of retreat were called “deserts,” and were sought for in the uninhabited and rocky islands lying at a distance from the mainland. It is surmised that the islands of St. Michael, Ardoilean, and others in a similar position off the West Coast of Ireland, containing monastic remains, were retreats of this description.
We have seen that these establishments exhibit in their beehive huts and cashels the tradition of the native Pagan style of building derived from the raths of the converted chiefs. In addition to these primitive erections, they further contain evidences of certain structural elements imported in connection with the introduction of Christianity.[15] For, besides the circular cells of the monks, they invariably comprise one or more small churches or oratories. These are structurally distinguished by having square angles on plan, both externally and internally, and by having the joints of the stones generally cemented with a certain amount of mortar. The roofs were constructed like those of the huts, with overlapping stones carried up with a curve to a pointed ridge. These churches are of small dimensions, and form a simple oblong chamber set with its greater length towards the east and west. They have a small door in the west end with inclined jambs and straight lintel, and a small square-headed window to the east. The above Christian form of church was, however, not fully adopted at first, many of the early Irish churches retaining the native form of construction—i.e., the walls, both of sides and ends, rise in a curve from the foundation to the ridge of the roof, which is formed of overlapping stones, and the whole presents the appearance of an inverted boat with a sharp keel. These churches are built with dry stones, carefully constructed.[16] They are often associated with pillar stones, inscribed with crosses and inscriptions in Roman letters of the most ancient form,[17] and are supposed to be of the age of the Saints whose names they bear, dating from the fifth to the seventh centuries.[18] They were succeeded in the seventh and eighth centuries by a somewhat more advanced type, forming a transition from the dry-built and rough stone structures to buildings cemented with mortar, and having the stones dressed. To these were added chancels in the ninth and tenth centuries, having radiating chancel arches, which are invariably semi-circular, and have inclined jambs. The church of St. Kevin at Glendalough presents a good example of a chancel added to a primitive single-chambered church. Ornament was gradually introduced, but the Irish characteristic of the stone roof, supported on an arch, was retained in small structures up to the twelfth century. As time progressed the original overlapping form of arch was superseded by the true radiating arch. In the case of the larger churches, however, the roof seems generally to have been constructed with wooden rafters and shingles.[19]
The radiating arch appears to have been introduced about the same time as the chancel, and was by degrees applied both to doors and windows, but the sloping form of the jambs continued in use till the introduction of the Norman style.[20]
The religious enthusiasm which pervaded the Irish monasteries was very great, and displayed itself in the numerous offshoots and missions which they sent out, not only to the neighbouring countries of England and Scotland, but also to Gaul, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy. Rude and primitive as were their dwellings, the Celtic monks excelled in several departments of art and literature. Their chronicles of events are almost our only guide to the history of the country in those early times, and the writings and illuminations of their religious books are marvels of beautiful caligraphy and design. The forms and features of their drawings and illuminations are of a marked and special character, and are found prominently displayed not only in their MSS., but on all objects of Celtic production, such as gold and silver ornaments and shrines, and the sculptured crosses and architectural enrichments of a somewhat later date.[21]
The earliest stone monuments in Ireland consist, as in Scotland, of rude pillar stones, bearing plain incised crosses, accompanied with inscriptions in debased Roman capitals. These are succeeded by sepulchral slabs, shaped and dressed, which were laid flat over the graves, and were carved with various forms of the cross extending over the entire surface, and sometimes covered with interlacing ornament. But the upright cross-bearing slabs, which we shall find are so common in Scotland, were almost unknown in Ireland. At Clonmacnoise there are 179 of these recumbent cross-bearing slabs, the ascertained dates of which extend from 628 to 1278; of these only sixty-seven bear any ornament except the cross. The earliest with ornament dates from 806, and many others belong to the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries.[22] Free standing crosses of fine design are also numerous in Ireland. They are generally covered with pictorial sculpture of Scriptural subjects; they date from the tenth to the twelfth centuries. They usually bear on the obverse a representation of the Crucifixion,[23] and on the reverse a figure of Christ in glory. These sculptures occupy the principal place at the junction of the arms with the upright shaft, and the remainder of the cross contains figure subjects, arranged in panels, representing events symbolical of the Redemption, and leading the mind up to the principal subject. Amongst the most common are the Temptation of Adam and Eve, the Sacrifice of Isaac, Jonah and the Whale, Daniel in the Lions’ Den, &c.
Symbolic sculptures, representing hunting scenes, grotesque animals, &c., so common on the Scottish monuments, are also occasionally found on the Irish crosses, but do not occur so frequently as on the former. The peculiar and unexplained symbols so universally found on the Scottish monuments are, however, entirely absent from those of Ireland.
Amongst the earliest fields in which the energy and enterprise of the Irish monastic missionaries found an outlet were naturally the adjoining lands of Kintyre and the islands on the West Coast of Scotland. From the beginning of the sixth century an emigration had been going on from Dalriada, in Ulster, to these regions, and settlements had been formed and a large part of the country taken possession of, extending as far north as Mull, and including part of the mainland of Argyll. In 560, however, Brude, King of the Northern Picts, led an expedition against the invaders, and drove them back from most of their possessions. A desire to retrieve this reverse, combined with zeal to spread the benefits of religion amongst the heathen Picts, is supposed to have led to St. Columba’s mission, and to the foundation of the Monastic Church in Scotland. In 563 St. Columba, with twelve disciples, sailed from Ireland for Dalriada, in Scotland. After visiting some of the islands and founding a cave-chapel at Loch Coalisport, which is still traceable, he finally, with consent of the Picts, settled at Iona. There he found a remnant of an early Church of Secular Bishops, but they yielded to the stronger monastic element now prevailing.[24]
The monastery founded by Columba at Iona was of the ordinary style of the Irish establishments above described. Adamnan, in his Life of Columba, mentions that the buildings were constructed with wattles and turf, and the roofs covered with thatch. Besides the church and the huts for the brethren, there was a special cell for the abbot, a larger hut for a refectory, and another for strangers. The whole was enclosed, as usual, with a high wall or rampart. About a century after Columba’s time some improvement seems to have been made on the rude system of building with wattles. Adamnan, who lived about that date, describes how, in renewing the structures of the monastery, oak boards were used, and the roof was covered with thatch.
The Church established in Iona followed the example of its Irish founders, and sent out missionaries in all directions. In 565 St. Columba visited King Brude in his stronghold on the river Ness, and succeeded in converting the king and the Northern Picts. This mission seems to have been partly political, as it was also successful in establishing the Irish colony of Dalriada in possession of its territory under its own king.[25] During the sixth century numerous churches were founded throughout Scotland and in the Western Islands by St. Columba and his companions, St. Brendan, St. Comgall, and St. Cainnech,[26] whose names still survive in the dedications of many of these structures.
The Pictish King Brude was succeeded by King Gartnaid, who fixed his royal seat at Abernethy, in Perthshire. There he is said to have built a monastery (580-590) and dedicated it to St. Bridget, to whom, as we have seen, an earlier church had been dedicated in the same locality. St. Cainnech is said to have established himself in a “desert” at Kilrimont (St. Andrews),[27] thus indicating the early foundation of these well-known religious sites. The Cumbrian Church was also founded about this time at Glasgow by St. Kentigern, a friend of Columba’s. St. Columba died in 597, and, after his death, Iona was acknowledged as the head of all the churches and monasteries which had been established in Scotland.