In preparing the tough metal from crude copper, the more oxidisable impurities (iron, sulphur, etc.) are first removed by a thorough oxidation during or after melting down, this being known as “airing.” The operation oxidises some of the copper, and it is probable that the copper oxide thus formed plays an important part in getting rid of impurities. By the time they have been thoroughly expelled, the metal is considerably over-oxidised. Samples taken at this stage exhibit the following characteristics:—The ingot has a depression down the centre line, the material is very brittle, the fracture is brick-like in texture and purple-red in colour, whilst much copper oxide and oxidule-eutectic are seen on examination under the microscope. This material is known as Dry Copper; it is merely an intermediate product, and is commercially useless. The excess of oxygen is removed by “poling”—that is, reduction, effected largely by charcoal, as well as by reducing gases—successive samples showing less and less of the characteristics of dry copper. The surface becomes level, the metal exceedingly tough, the fracture fine-grained to silky in texture, and a fine salmon-pink in colour. With satisfactory mechanical properties, the metal has now become tough pitch copper.

If the poling—that is, the reduction of the oxidised constituents of the tough pitch copper—be carried too far, the metal becomes brittle again, being known as over-poled copper. The fracture then tends to become coarse and fibrous, the colour lighter, and the upper surface of the ingot exhibits a ridge. The reasons for these effects have not yet been quite fully explained, but there is no doubt that they arise from the removal of oxygen from the oxygenated constituents, and the withdrawal from the metal of the protecting influence of the cuprous oxide. Such influences are to some extent physical, since they prevent the retention of the reducing gases; partly mechanical, in their effects on the properties of the metal per se, and partly chemical, as the oxide had probably entered into chemical combination with some of the objectionable impurities, producing compounds, in which form they were much less harmful. The removal of this oxygen from the metal breaks down such combinations, leaving the reduced impurity again to exercise its destructive effects on the properties. Over-poled copper, like dry copper, being brittle, is commercially useless as such, and is really an intermediate product, the metal being brought to pitch again by further aëration to make it “dry,” after which it may be poled back to correct pitch. As already stated, the over-poling effects are not due to any intrinsic action of carbon directly on the copper itself.

Summarising, it may be stated that the most important commercial varieties of copper are:—

And, in addition, Lake Copper and some Converter Bars.

A number of unrefined metallic products met with in practice include:—

Converter Bars.—The product from the Bessemer operation on copper mattes. Most converter metal is subsequently electrolytically refined, but several varieties of Australian and American copper are put on the market direct in this form. Being produced from fairly pure ores, which carry but little silver and gold, the converter metal may be sufficiently pure to render electrolytic refining unnecessary, and too low in gold and silver values to make such an operation profitable.

Cathode Copper is the product from the electrolytic refinery, and is usually remelted, brought up to pitch, and cast into ingots previous to use.

Black Copper is produced by the smelting of oxide ores, and is subsequently refined.

Cement Copper is produced by wet processes, usually by precipitation from copper-bearing solutions by means of iron, the product being a rather impure reddish-brown spongy mass. Many varieties contain arsenic. It requires melting and subsequent refining to adapt it for service.