Danger lest France or Spain, or both, make war on England to release Mary and secure the Catholic succession, but hands of both tied at home, and Elizabeth’s efforts directed to keeping them so. To that end, sends help to Huguenots in Wars of Religion, and to the revolted Netherlands.
France alarmed by victory of Lepanto (1571), makes advances to England. Courtship of Anjou, 1570-72, and of Alençon, 1572-84. “Matters were indeed in a critical position for England; the Ridolfi plot was brewing, the English Catholic nobles in a ferment, and the Pope, Philip, the League and the Guises ready to turn their whole power to the destruction of Elizabeth.” 1572—Treaty of Blois, pledging Charles IX. and Elizabeth to give informal aid to the revolted Netherlands. The St. Bartholomew; marriage negotiations interrupted. 1574—Don John, Governor of the Netherlands, grasps the necessity of the overthrow of Elizabeth as a preliminary to reducing the Netherlands, and aims at himself marrying the Queen of Scots and securing England. “The true remedy for the evil condition of the Netherlands ... is that England should be in the power of a person devoted and well affectioned to your Majesty’s service.” 1575—The Netherlands offer sovereignty of Holland and Zealand to Elizabeth; she declines. 1578—Flemish appeal to Alençon to lead them; he accepts in reliance on England; Elizabeth’s policy is that Alençon shall be under English, not French, patronage, and she poses before Europe as his affianced bride. 1579 and 1581—He visits England for supplies. 1582—Alençon invested with sovereignty of the Netherlands; Elizabeth’s connection emphasised by presence of Leicester and Sir P. Sidney. 1584—Alençon expelled from Netherlands; his death. “Elizabeth had begun her long marriage juggle in 1559 in hourly danger of being overwhelmed and crushed by her own Catholic subjects in union with one or other of her great continental neighbours. She ended it in 1583, triumphant all along the line, with both her rivals crippled and distracted, whilst she really held the balance of peace and war of Europe in her hands.”
Period III. The Spanish Period, 1585-1603.
(i.) To 1596, when England, France and the Netherlands fight Spain either Separately or in a Concert which is secret.
Counter-Reformation in France represented by the League, the anti-dynastic party; Pact de Joinville between Philip and the League, after murder of William of Orange, for extirpation of heresy in France and the Netherlands; importance of 1585 in English policy; Alençon gone, Elizabeth must act openly if Netherlands are to be saved. Only military movement as yet helping Scotch in 1561. With 1585 begins what is meant by the “Elizabethan Age”. Pause to estimate Elizabeth’s policy. Froude finds no clue but inconsistency—really a consistent inconsistency. Seeley’s estimate: “There are emergencies in which a persistent abstinence from action, a kind of resolute irresolution, is the only sound policy.... Everything at her accession was in a sort of suspense. Whether the nation was Catholic or Protestant, by what title she herself reigned, who would be her own successor, and whom she should marry—all was undefined.” Elizabeth really understood popular government; she gave her people twenty-six years of peace, in which they learnt to know themselves and what they wanted. 1585—Siege of Antwerp; Netherlands in extremity; offer sovereignty to Elizabeth; she refuses; Philip tries intimidation by wholesale arrest of British sailors; war inevitable. Leicester’s expedition; his blunders; fall of Antwerp; Zutphen; Elizabeth also lets loose her “Knight of the Ocean”; Drake’s expeditions, 1577, 1585, 1587; execution of Mary Queen of Scots. “The execution of Mary Stuart in the greatest degree, and the campaign of Leicester in a secondary degree, together with the adventurous voyages of Drake, brought on the open war between Elizabeth and Philip.” 1588—Armada; causes of failure: (a) superiority of English ships and English sailors; (b) English guns heavier and better served; (c) unfavourable winds causing delay and then destruction; (d) unfitness of Parma for command. “But all said and done, the victory was one of men and tactics more than materials.” “The Armada was not defeated by a storm, but at Gravelines, on Monday, 29th July; and the enterprise was defeated when Parma failed to bring up his flotilla.” Results of Armada: (a) gave England a new position in Europe; (b) secured her from danger of future invasion, and consequently (c) enabled Elizabeth to turn her attention to the divisions that weakened the English Church; (d) gave the nation leisure for the struggle between Crown and Parliament, which only ended with William III. 1589—Elizabeth’s Counter-Armada; Drake’s advice, “better cheap” than awaiting renewed attack. Spain’s power broken, the religious question is fought out on a new battle-ground; succession struggle in France; League helped by Spain against Henry of Navarre; Arques; Ivry. 1591—English forces under Essex to help Henry of Navarre. 1595—Henry publishes declaration of war against Spain.
(ii.) 1596-1598. France, England and Netherlands united in a Formal Coalition of one Catholic and two Protestant Powers against the Counter-Reformation.
1596—Elizabeth makes a formal alliance offensive and defensive with Henry IV. and the States against Spain, and sends expedition under Howard and Essex against Cadiz; the “Trafalgar of the Elizabethan War” (Laughton). 1597—Essex and Raleigh make the “Island voyage” against Spain.
(iii.) 1598-1603. Coalition Dissolved. Philip III. against Elizabeth and Netherlands.
1598—Henry IV. deserts his allies and makes peace with Spain in Treaty of Vervins. Philip III. continues war against Elizabeth in order to use Ireland—in revolt—as basis of operations for the Counter-Reformation against England. Danger from Ireland increased by treason of Essex. 1602—Spanish expedition lands in Ireland; joins Tyrone against Kinsale; defeated by Mountjoy. 1603—Elizabeth increasingly hostile towards Spain till her death.
Results of Elizabeth’s Policy.