The Trouvelot astronomical drawings manual

by E. L. Trouvelot

The duration of Sun-spots varies greatly. Some last only for a few hours; while others continue for weeks and even months at a time, but not without undergoing changes.

The modes of disappearance of Sun-spots are as various as those of their apparition. The spots rarely close up by a gradual diminution or contraction of their umbra and penumbra. This mode of disappearance belongs exclusively to the spots deprived of faculæ and veils. One of the most common modes of the disappearance of a spot is its invasion by large facular masses, which slowly advance upon its penumbra and umbra and finally cover it entirely. It is a process precisely the reverse of that in which spots are formed by the shifting aside of the faculæ, as above described. In other types, the spots close up by the gradual enlargement of the luminous bridges traversing them, which are slowly transformed into branches of the photosphere, all of the characteristics of which they have acquired. In many cases, the spots covered over by the faculæ continue to exist for some time, hidden under these masses, as is often proved, either by the appearance of small spots on the facular mass left at the place they occupied, or even by the reappearance of the same spot.

Apart from the general movement of rotation of the solar surface, some of the spots seem to be endowed with a proper motion of their own, which becomes greater the nearer the spots are to the solar equator. According to the observations of Mr. Carrington, the period of rotation of the Sun, as deduced from the observations of the solar spots during a period of seven years, is 25 days at the equator; while at 50° of heliocentric latitude it is 27 days. But the period of rotation, as derived from the observations of spots occupying the same latitude, is far from being constant, as it varies at different times, with the frequency of the spots and with the solar activity, so that at present the law of these variations is not well known. From the character of the solar envelope, it seems very natural that the rotation should differ in the different zones and at different times, since this envelope is not rigid, but very movable, and governed by forces which are themselves very variable.

Although it is a general law that the spots near the equator have a more rapid motion than those situated in higher latitudes, yet, in many cases, the proper motion of the spots is more apparent than real. For the most part, the changes of form and the rapid displacements observed in some spots are only apparent, and due to the fact that the large masses of faculæ which are kept in suspense above them are very unstable, and change position with the slightest change in the forces holding them in suspension. Since in these cases we view the spots through the openings of the faculæ situated above them, the slightest motion of these objects produces an apparent motion in the spots, although they have remained motionless. Accordingly, it has been remarked that of all the spots, those which have the greater proper motion are precisely those which have the most faculæ and luminous bridges; while the other spots in the same regions, but not attended by similar phenomena, are comparatively steady in their movement. These last spots are undoubtedly better adapted than any others to exhibit the rotation of the Sun; but it is probable that this period of rotation will never be known with accuracy, simply because the solar surface is unstable, and does not rotate uniformly.

The Sun-spots have a remarkable tendency to form into groups of various sizes, but whatever may be the number of spots thus assembled, the group is nearly always composed of two principal spots, to which the others are only accessories. The tendency of the Sun-spots to assemble in pairs is general, and is observed in all latitudes, even among the minute temporary groups formed in the polar regions. Whenever several are situated quite close together, those belonging to the same group can be easily recognized by this character. Whatever may be the position of the axis of the two principal spots of a group when it is first formed, this axis has a decided tendency to place itself parallel to the solar equator, no matter to what latitude the group belongs; and if it is disturbed from this position, it soon returns to it when the disturbance has ceased.

It is also remarkable that the spots observed at the same time remain in nearly the same parallel of latitude for a greater or less period of time; but they keep changing their position from year to year, their latitude decreasing with the activity of the solar forces.

Among the Sun-spots, those associated with faculæ form the groups which attain the largest proportions. When such groups acquire an apparent diameter of 1' or more, they are plainly visible to the naked eye, since for a spot to be visible to the naked eye on the Sun, it need only subtend an angle of 50". I have sometimes seen such groups through a smoky atmosphere, when the solar light was so much reduced that the disk could be observed directly and without injury to the sight.

The largest spot which ever came under my observation was seen during the period from the 13th to the 19th of November, 1870. This spot, which was on the northern hemisphere of the Sun, was conspicuous among the smaller spots constituting the group to which it belonged, and followed them on the east. On November 16th, when it attained its largest size, the diameter of its penumbra occupied fully one-fifth of the diameter of the Sun; its real diameter being, therefore, not less than 172,000 miles, or nearly 22 times the diameter of the Earth. As the umbra of this spot occupied a little more than one-third of its whole diameter, seven globes like our own, placed side by side on a straight line, could easily have passed through this immense gap. To fill the area of this opening, about 45 such globes would have been needed. This spot was, of course, very easily seen with the naked eye, its diameter being almost eight times that required for a spot to be visible without a telescope.

Ancient historians often speak of obscurations of the Sun, and it has been supposed by some astronomers that this phenomenon might have been due in some cases to the apparition of large spots. A few spots on the surface of the Sun, like that just described, would sensibly reduce its light.

Besides the ordinary Sun-spots already described, others are at times observed on the surface of the Sun, which show some of the same characteristics, but never attain so large proportions. They always appear as if seen through a fog, or veil, between the granulations of the solar surface. On account of their vagueness and ill-defined contours, I have proposed for these objects the term, "Veiled Spots." Veiled spots have a shorter duration than the ordinary spots, the smaller types sometimes forming and vanishing in a few minutes. Some of the larger veiled spots, however, remain visible for several days in succession, and show the characteristics of other spots in regard to the arrangement of their parts.