Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals

by E. Norman Gardiner

CONTENTS

List of Illustrations	[xv]
List of Commonest Abbreviations	[xxv]
PART I
A HISTORY OF GREEK ATHLETICS AND ATHLETIC FESTIVALS FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO 393 A.D.
1. Introductory	[1]
2. Athletics in Homer	[8]
3. The Rise of the Athletic Festival	[27]
4. The Age of Athletic Festivals, Sixth Century B.C.	[62]
5. The Age of the Athletic Ideal, 500-440 B.C.	[86]
6. Professionalism and Specialization, 440-338 B.C.	[122]
7. The Decline of Athletics, 338-146 B.C.	[146]
8. Athletics under the Romans	[163]
9. The Olympic Festival	[194]
10. The Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean Festivals	[208]
11. The Athletic Festivals of Athens	[227]
PART II
THE ATHLETIC EXERCISES OF THE GREEKS
12. The Stadium	[251]
13. The Foot-Race	[270]
14. The Jump and Halteres	[295]
15. Throwing the Diskos	[313]
16. Throwing the Javelin	[338]
17. The Pentathlon	[359]
18. Wrestling	[372]
19. Boxing	[402]
20. The Pankration	[435]
21. The Hippodrome	[451]
22. The Gymnasium and the Palaestra	[467]
BIBLIOGRAPHY	[511]
INDEX	[519]
INDEX OF GREEK WORDS	[531]

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Boxer on steatite pyxis. Cnossus. (B.S.A. vii. p. 95)	[10]
2. Armed combat on Clazomenae. Sarcophagus in British Museum. (Murray, Sarcophagi in B.M., Pls. ii., iii.)	[21]
3. Funeral games on Amphiaraus vase. Berlin, 1655. (Mon. d. I. X., Pls. iv., v.)	[29]
4. Funeral games on Dipylon vase. Copenhagen. (Arch. Zeit., 1885, Pl. viii.)	[30]
5. Plan of Olympia (after Dörpfeld)	[35]
6. Statue of girl runner. Copy of fifth-century original. Vatican. (Helbig, Führer, 2nd Ed., 384.) (From a photograph by Alinari)	[49]
7. Apollo, found at Tenea. Munich. (E. A. Gardner, Greek Sculpture, Fig. 20)	[87]
8. Statue by an Argive sculptor. Delphi. (Greek Sculpture, Fig. 134; Fouilles de Delphes, ii. 1)	[89]
9. Choiseul-Gouffier Apollo. British Museum.	[91]
10. Figure from E. pediment of temple at Aegina. Munich. (Greek Sculpture, Fig. 41)	[92]
11. Bronze statuette from Ligourio. Berlin. (Greek Sculpture, Fig. 39)	[93]
12. Bronze statuette of Hoplitodromos. Tübingen. (Jahrb., 1886, Pl. ix.)	[94]
13. Diskobolos, after Myron. (Photograph of bronzed cast made in Munich)	[96]
14. Doryphoros, after Polycleitus. Naples. (Greek Sculpture, Fig. 74)	[98]
15. Diadumenos from Vaison, after Polycleitus. (Greek Sculpture, Fig. 75)	[100]
16. Bronze head of ephebos. Fifth century. Munich, Glyptothek, 457. (From a photograph by Bruckmann)	[102]
17. Scenes in palaestra. R.-f. kylix. Munich, 795. (Arch. Zeit., 1878, Pl. xi.)	[105]
18. Bronze charioteer. Fifth century. Delphi. (Greek Sculpture, Fig. 138; Fouilles de Delphes, II. xlix. 1)	[113]
19. The Apoxyomenos. Rome, Vatican. (Greek Sculpture, Fig. 98)	[123]
20. Statue of Agias by Lysippus. Delphi. (Greek Sculpture, Fig. 141; Fouilles de Delphes, II. lxiii.)	[125]
21. Farnese Heracles, by Glycon. Naples. (Greek Sculpture, Fig. 125)	[147]
22. Athletics under the Romans. Mosaic found at Tusculum. Imperial period. (Mon. d. I. VI., vii., Pl. 82)	[177]
23. Professional boxer. Mosaic from the Thermae of Caracalla. Rome, Lateran. (G. F. Hill, Illustrations to the Classics, Fig. 400; Secchi, Musaico Antoniniano)	[190]
24. Silver staters of Elis, in British Museum. Fifth century, (a) Head of nymph Olympia; (b) Victory seated, with palm	[194]
25. Judge crowning a victor. Interior of r.-f. kylix. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, 532. (Arch. Zeit., 1853, lii. 3; Luynes, xlv.)	[206]
26. Phyllobolia. Interior of r.-f. kylix. Canino Coll. (Gerh. A. V. 274, 1)	[206]
27. Copper coins of Delphi, in British Museum. Imperial period. (a) Prize table, bearing crow, five apples, vase and crown. (b) Ins. Πύθια in crown of bay leaves. (B.M. Coins, Delphi, 39, 38)	[208]
28. Copper coin of Corinth, in British Museum. Imperial period. Ins. Ἵσθμια in crown of pine leaves. (B.M. Coins, Corinth, 603)	[214]
29. 30. Silver vase. Imperial period. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale. (Le Prévost, Mém. sur la collection des Vases de Bernay, Pls. viii., ix.)	[220], [222]
31. Copper coin of Argos, in British Museum. Imperial period. Ins. Νέμεια in crown of celery. (B.M. Coins, Argos, 170)	[223]
32. Flute-players. Small Panathenaic (?) amphora, in British Museum, B. 188. Sixth century	[231]
33. Panathenaic festival. B.-f. kylix, in British Museum, B. 80. (J.H.S. i., Pl vii.)	[233]
34. Apobates. Votive relief. Hellenistic period. Athens, Acropolis Museum. (B.C.H. vii., Pl. xvii.)	[238]
35. Pyrrhic chorus. Monument of Atarbus. Fourth century. Athens, Acropolis Museum. (Hill, Illustrations to the Classics, Fig. 417; Beulé, L’Acropole d’Athènes, ii., Pl. iv.)	[240]
36. Victorious boat on stele of Helvidius. Imperial period. Athens, National Museum. (Ἐφ. Ἀρχ., 1862, Pl. xxix.; von Sybel, Katalog, 3300)	[241]
37. Proclaiming a victor. Panathenaic amphora, in British Museum, B. 144. Sixth century	[243]
38. Crowning a victor. Panathenaic amphora, in British Museum, B. 138. Sixth century	[244]
39. Acrobatic scene. Panathenaic (?) amphora from Camirus. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, 243. (Salzmann, Nécropole de Cameiros, Pl. lvii.)	[245]
40. Marble chair of judge at Panathenaea. (Stuart and Revett, Antiquities of Athens, iii. 3, p. 20)	[246]
41. Portion of starting lines at Olympia. (Olympia, Tafelb. i. 47)	[253]
42. The stadium of Epidaurus, S. E. corner, showing starting lines and rectangular end. (From a photograph by Mr. Emery Walker)	[255]
43. Plan of stadium at Epidaurus. (Πρακτικά, 1902, Pl. i.)	[258]
44. Plan of stadium at Delphi. (B.C.H., 1899, Pl. xiii.)	[258]
45. The starting lines at Delphi. (From a photograph by Mr. Emery Walker)	[260]
46. The stadium of Delphi	[262]
47. Hoplitodromos starting. R.-f. amphora. Louvre. (J.H.S. xxiii. p. 270; Bull. Nap. nouv. sér. vi. 7)	[274]
48. Runner starting. R.-f. kylix. Formerly at Naples. (J.H.S. xxiii. p. 271; Dubois-Maisonneuve, Pl. xxv.; Inghirami, Mon. Etrusc. v. 2, Pl. lxx.)	[275]
49. Runner starting. R.-f. kylix. Chiusi. (Hartwig, Meisterschalen, Fig. 6)	[276]
50. Dolichodromoi. Panathenaic amphora. Sixth century. (Mon. d. I. I., xxii. 7 b)	[279]
51. Dolichodromoi. Panathenaic amphora. British Museum, B. 609. Archonship of Niceratus, 333 B.C. (Hill, Illustrations to the Classics, Fig. 390)	[280]
52. Stadiodromoi. Panathenaic amphora. Munich, 498. Sixth century. (Mon. d. I. X., xlviii., l, m)	[281]
53. Stadiodromoi. Panathenaic amphora. Fourth century. (Stephani, C. R. Atlas, 1876, Pl. i.)	[283]
54. Hoplitodromoi, boxers, wrestlers. R.-f. kylix of Euphronius. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, 523. (Hartwig, Meisterschalen, Pl. xvi.; J.H.S. xxiii. p. 278.) For interior vide Fig. [115]	[286]
55. Hoplitodromoi; the turn. R.-f. kylix. Formerly in Berlin. (J.H.S. xxiii. p. 278; Jahrb., 1895, p. 190)	[287]
56. Hoplitodromoi. R.-f. kylix. Berlin, 2307. (J.H.S. xxiii. p. 277; Gerh. A.V. 261)	[288]
57. Hoplitodromoi; the finish. R.-f. kylix. British Museum, E. 818. (J.H.S. xxiii. p. 285)	[289]
58. Hoplitodromoi. Panathenaic amphora. British Museum, B. 608. Archonship of Pythodelus, 336 B.C. (Mon. d. I. X., xlviii. e, 3)	[290]
59. Hoplitodromoi. R.-f. kylix. Munich, 1240. (J.H.S. xxiii. p. 284)	[292]
60. Leaden halter from Eleusis. Athens, National Museum, 9075. (Ἐφ. Ἀρχ., 1883, 190; Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 1)	[298]
61. Photograph of halteres in British Museum, (a) Cast of stone halter from Olympia (Jüthner, Fig. 9). (b) Limestone halter from Camirus (B.M. Guide to Greek and Roman Life, Fig. 41). (c) Leaden halter (J.H.S. xxiv. p. 182)	[299]
62. Stone halter from Corinth. Athens, National Museum. (Ἐφ. Ἀρχ., 1883, p. 103; Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 8)	[300]
63. Jumper and flute-player. R.-f. pelike. British Museum, E. 427. (J.H.S. xxiv. p. 185)	[302]
64. Jumpers, akontistes, diskobolos, flute-player. R.-f. krater. Copenhagen (?). (J.H.S. xxiv. p. 185; Annali, 1846, M.)	[303]
65. Jumpers practising and paidotribes. R.-f. kylix. Bologna. (J.H.S. xxiv. p. 186; Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 16)	[304]
66. Jumpers, diskobolos, paidotribai. R.-f. kylix. Bourguignon Coll. (Arch. Zeit., 1884, xvi.) For interior vide Fig. [80]	[305]
67. Jumper about to land. B.-f. amphora. British Museum, B. 48. (J.H.S. xxiv. p. 183, ii. p. 219; Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 15)	[306]
68. Jumper running. R.-f. kylix. Chiusi. (J.H.S. xxiv. p. 188; Klein, Euphronios, p. 306)	[307]
69. Standing jump without halteres. R.-f. pelike belonging to Dr. Hauser. (J.H.S. xxiii. p. 272; Jahrb., 1895, p. 185)	[309]
70. Youth swinging halteres. R.-f. oinochoe. British Museum, E. 561. (J.H.S. xxiv. p. 192)	[311]
71. Diskobolos holding stone diskos. B.-f. amphora. British Museum, B. 271. (J.H.S. xxvii. Pl. i.) For reverse vide Fig. [141]	[314]
72. Bronze diskos found at Aegina. Berlin. (Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 20)	[315]
73. Bronze diskos of Exoïdas. British Museum, 3207	[317]
74. Marking the throw of diskos. (a) R.-f. kylix. Chiusi. (b) R.-f. kylix of Hischylus. Würzburg, 357, A. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 11; Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 27)	[320]
75. The standing diskobolos. Vatican. Copy of fifth-century original. (From a photograph by Anderson)	[321]
76. Palaestra scene; diskobolos, akontistes. R.-f. kylix. British Museum, E. 6. (J.H.S. xxiii. p. 273)	[323]
77. Diskobolos, flute-player. B.-f. kelebe. British Museum, B. 361. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 15)	[324]
78. Diskobolos. R.-f. krater of Amasis. Corneto. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 16; Hartwig, Meisterschalen, Fig. 56 a)	[324]
79. Diskobolos and paidotribes. R.-f. pelike. British Museum, E. 395. (J.H.S. xxvii. Pl. iii.)	[325]
80. Diskobolos. Interior of Fig. [66]	[326]
81. Bronze statuette of diskobolos. Fifth century. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 18; Burlington Fine Arts Club, 1903, Pl. 50)	[326]
82. Diskobolos, paidotribes. B.-f. lekythos. British Museum, B. 576. (J.H.S. xxvii. Pl. ii.)	[328]
83. Bronze statuette of diskobolos. New York. (Bulletin of Metropolitan Museum of Art, iii. p. 32)	[329]
84. Bronze statuette of diskobolos. British Museum, 675. Fifth century. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 22)	[330]
85. Diskobolos. R.-f. kylix. Louvre. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 27; Hartwig, Meisterschalen, lxiii. 2)	[331]
86. Coins of Cos, in British Museum, representing diskobolos. Fifth century. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 30)	[332]
87. Diskobolos. Panathenaic amphora. Naples, Race. Cum. 184. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 32; Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 31)	[333]
88. Diskobolos, flute-player, paidotribes, youth fastening amentum, skapanai. B.-f. hydria. British Museum, E. 164. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 32; B.C.H., 1899, p. 164)	[334]
89. Diskobolos. R.-f. kylix. Boulogne, Musée Municipale. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 33; Le Musée, ii. p. 281)	[335]
90. Diskobolos. B.-f. hydria. Vienna, 318. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 34)	[336]
91. Youth fastening amentum. R.-f. kylix. Würzburg, 432. (Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 37)	[340]
92. Various methods of attaching the amentum. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 250)	[341]
93. Warrior holding spear by amentum. B.-f. kylix. British Museum, B. 380. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 252)	[342]
94. Warriors throwing spears with amenta. François vase, Florence. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 253; Furtwängler, Vasenmalerei, Pl. xiii.)	[343]
95. Illustrations of use of the throwing thong. (a, b) Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Figs. 47, 48. Reconstruction of throw, (c) Detail from B.M. Vases, B. 134. (d) The ounep of New Caledonia.	[344]
96. Palaestra scene; a wrestling lesson, preparations for javelin-throwing. R.-f. psykter. Bourguignon Coll. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 259; Antike Denkmale, ii. 20)	[345]
97. Akontistes. B.-f. stamnos. Vatican. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 261; Mus. Greg. II. xvii.)	[346]
98. Mounted warriors throwing javelins by means of amenta. B.-f. vase. Athens, Acropolis Museum, 606. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 261; B. Graef. Die antiken Vasen v. d. Acropolis, Pl. xxxi.)	[347]
99. Diskobolos, akontistes, boxer fastening himantes. R.-f. amphora, in British Museum, E. 256. (J.H.S. xxvii. Pl. xix.)	[348]
100. Akontistai. R.-f. kylix. Munich, 562 A. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 262; Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 41)	[349]
101. Akontistai. R.-f. kylix. Berlin, 3139 inv. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 263; Hartwig, Meisterschalen, Pl. xlvi.)	[350]
102. Akontistes. R.-f. kylix. Torlonia, 270 (148). (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 264; Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 49)	[351]
103. Akontistes, diskobolos, skapane. R.-f. amphora. Munich, 408. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 265; Furtwängler, Vasenmalerei, xlv.)	[353]
104. Akontistes. R.-f. kylix. Rome(?) (Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 43)	[354]
105. Akontistes. R.-f. kylix. Berlin, 2728. (J.H.S. xxvii. p. 268; Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 42)	[355]
106. Throwing the javelin on horseback. Panathenaic amphora. British Museum. (J.H.S. xxvii. Pl. xx.)	[357]
107. Pentathlon. Panathenaic amphora. British Museum, B. 134. Sixth century. (J.H.S. xxvii. Pl. xviii.)	[360]
108. Pentathlon. Panathenaic amphora. Leyden. Sixth century. (Arch. Zeit., 1881, ix.)	[361]
109. Wrestling types on coins, in British Museum. (J.H.S. xxv. p. 271.) (a, b, c) Aspendus, fifth and fourth centuries; (d) Heraclea in Lucania, fourth century; (e, f) Syracuse, circa 400 B.C.; (g) Alexandria, Antoninus Pius	[372]
110. One of a pair of wrestling-boys, generally known as diskoboloi. Hellenistic period. Naples. (From a photograph by Brogi)	[379]
111. Wrestling. Panathenaic amphora. British Museum, B. 603. Archonship of Polyzelus, 367 B.C. (J.H.S. xxv. p. 263)	[381]
112. Theseus and Cercyon wrestling. R.-f. kylix. British Museum, E. 84. (J.H.S. xxv. p. 264)	[382]
113. Wrestling group from b.-f. amphora. British Museum. B. 295. Vide Fig. 143. (J.H.S. xxv. p. 270)	[383]
114. The flying mare. R.-f. kylix. British Museum, E. 94. (J.H.S. xxv. p. 268)	[384]
115. The flying mare. Interior of Fig. [54]	[385]
116. Wrestling groups. Prize vase. R.-f. krater of Andocides. Berlin, 2159. (J.H.S. xxv. p. 270; American Journal of Archaeology, 1896, p. 11)	[386]
117. Wrestling. R.-f. krater. Oxford, Ashmolean Museum, 288. (J.H.S. xxv. p. 274; Catalogue of Ashmolean Museum, Pl. xiii.)	[387]
118. Reverse of Fig. [143]	[388]
119. Peleus and Atalanta. B.-f. amphora. Munich, 584. (J.H.S. xxv. p. 275; Gerh. A. V. 177)	[389]
120. Wrestling, cross-buttock. Panathenaic amphora. Boulogne, Musée Municipale, 441. Sixth century. (Le Musée, ii. p. 275, Fig. 15)	[390]
121. Wrestling groups. B.-f. amphora. Munich, 1336. (J.H.S. xxv. Pl. xii.)	[391]
122. Wrestling group, paidotribes. R.-f. kylix. Philadelphia. (Trans. of University of Pennsylvania, 1907, Pl. xxxv.)	[392]
123. Wrestling groups, brabeutes. B.-f. amphora. Munich, 495. (J.H.S. xxv. Pl. xii.)	[393]
124. Theseus and Cercyon. R.-f. kylix. British Museum, E. 48. (J.H.S. xxv. p. 285)	[394]
125. Theseus and Cercyon. R.-f. kylix. British Museum, E. 36. (J.H.S. xxv. p. 285)	[394]
126. Theseus and Cercyon. Metope of Theseum. (J.H.S. xxv. p. 286; Greek Sculpture, Fig. 66)	[395]
127. Bronze wrestling group. Paris. (Clarac, 802, 2014; Reinach, Musée de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 124)	[396]
128. Wrestling, cross-buttock. B.-f. amphora. Vatican. (J.H.S. xxv. p. 288; Mus. Greg. xvii. 1, a)	[397]
129. Bronze wrestling group. British Museum. (J.H.S. xxv. Pl. xi.)	[398]
130. Bronze wrestling group. St. Petersburg. (Stephani, C.R., 1867, i. 1, 5; J.H.S. xxv. p. 290)	[399]
131. Bronze wrestling group. Constantinople. (J.H.S. xxv. p. 291; Jahrb., 1898, xi.)	[400]
132. Boxers taking the oath. R.-f. kylix. British Museum, E. 63. (Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 54)	[403]
133. Boxing scenes. R.-f. kylix of Duris. British Museum, E. 39. (J.H.S. xxvi. Pl. xii.; Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 53)	[404]
134. Interior of Fig. [151]	[406]
135. Boxers. Panathenaic amphora. British Museum, B. 607. Archonship of Pytliodelus, B.C. 336. (Mon. d. I. X., xlviii. e, 2; Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 67)	[407]
136. Statue of boxer seated. Rome, Terme Museum. (From a photograph by Anderson)	[408]
137. Right hand of boxer from Sorrento. Naples. (Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 63)	[409]
138. Caestus from mosaic in the thermae of Caracalla. Rome, Lateran. (Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 74)	[411]
139. Boxers (?) fighting over prize. Bronze situla. Watsch. (Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 61; Mitth. d. Central. Comm., 1883, Pl. ii.)	[412]
140. Boxers fighting over tripod. Fragment of b.-f. situla from Daphnae. British Museum, B. 124. (Tanis, ii. 30)	[413]
141. Boxer giving signal of defeat. B.-f. amphora in British Museum, B. 271. For reverse vide Fig. 71	[416]
142. Boxers, runners, jumper, wearing loin-cloth. B.-f. stamnos. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, 252. (De Ridder, Catalogue des Vases peints, i. p. 160)	[418]
143. Boxers, wrestlers. B.-f. amphora of Nicosthenes. British Museum, B. 295. Vide Figs. 113, 118	[420]
144. Boxers. Panathenaic amphora. Berlin, 1831. Sixth century. (Jüthner, Ant. Turn. Fig. 60)	[422]
145. Boxers. Panathenaic amphora. Campana Coll. Sixth century. (Stephani, C.R., 1876, 109, 44)	[423]
146. Boxers. R.-f. kylix of Pamphaeus. Corneto. (Marquardt, Pentathlon, Pl. i.; Mon. d. I. XI., xxiv.)	[424]
147. Boxers. Panathenaic amphora. Louvre, F. 278. Sixth century. (J.H.S. xxvi. p. 222)	[425]
148. Boxers. Panathenaic amphora. British Museum, B. 612. Fourth century	[427]
149. Marble head of boxer, with ear-lappets. Formerly in possession of Fabretti. (Schreiber, Atlas, xxiv. 8; Fabretti, De Columna Trajani, p. 267)	[433]
150. Boxers, akontistes, diskobolos, runners. B.-f. hydria. British Museum, B. 326. (Marquardt, Pentathlon, Pl. ii.)	[433]
151. Pankration, boxing, hoplitodromos. R.-f. kylix. British Museum, E. 78. (J.H.S. xxvi. Pl. xiii.)	[436]
152. Pankration. R.-f. kylix. Baltimore. (J.H.S. xxvi. p. 9; Hartwig, Meisterschalen, Pl. lxiv.)	[437]
153. Pankration. Fragment of R.-f. kylix. Berlin. (J.H.S. xxvi. p. 8; Hartwig, Meisterschalen, Fig. 12)	[438]
154. Pankration. Panathenaic amphora. Sixth century. (Mon. d. I. I., xxii.)	[439]
155. Pankration. Panathenaic amphora. Sixth century. (Mon. d. I. I. xxii.)	[440]
156. Heracles and Antaeus. B.-f. hydria, Munich, 114. (J.H.S. xxvi. p. 21; Arch. Zeit., 1878, x.)	[441]
157. Pankration. Panathenaic amphora of Kittos. British Museum, B. 604. Fourth century. (J.H.S. xxvi. Pl. iii.)	[442]
158. Pankration. Panathenaic amphora. British Museum, B. 610. Archonship of Nicetes, 332 B.C. (J.H.S. xxvi. Pl. iv.)	[443]
159. Pankration. Panathenaic amphora. Lamberg Coll. (J.H.S. i. Pl. vi.)	[444]
160. Heracles and Triton. B.-f. amphora. British Museum, B. 223. (J.H.S. xxvi. p. 15)	[445]
161. Heracles and Antaeus. R.-f. kylix. Athens. (J.H.S. x. Pl. i.; xxvi. p. 11)	[446]
162. Wrestling groups on Graeco-Roman gems in British Museum. (J.H.S. xxvi. p. 10)	[447]
163. Marble group of pankratiasts. Uffizi Palace, Florence. (Photograph by Brogi)	[449]
164. Plan of Aphesis in Hippodrome at Olympia. (After Weniger. Clio, 1909, p. 303)	[453]
165. Four-horse chariot-race. Panathenaic amphora found at Sparta. Sixth century. (B.S.A. xiii. Pl. v.)	[456]
166. Two-horse chariot-race. Panathenaic amphora. British Museum, B. 132. Sixth century	[458]
167. Coins of Philip II. of Macedon, in British Museum, (a) Silver tetradrachm; victorious jockey with palm branch, (b) Gold stater; two-horse chariot	[459]
168. Silver tetradrachm of Rhegium, in British Museum. Early fifth century. Mule chariot	[460]
169. Riding-race. Panathenaic amphora. British Museum, B. 133. Sixth century	[461]
170. Silver staters of Tarentum, in British Museum. Third century. (a) Mounted torch-bearer. (b) Apobates dismounting	[462]
171. Silver tetradrachms of Catana, in British Museum. Fifth century. Four-horse chariot	[464]
172. Silver decadrachms of Sicily, in British Museum. Four-horse chariot, (a) Agrigentum, 413-406 B.C. (b) Syracuse, 400-360 B.C.	[465]
173. Scenes in gymnasium. Boxers, wrestlers, paidotribai, diskobolos, akontistes. R.-f. kylix. Canino Coll. (Gerh. A. V. 271)	[473]
174. Riding lesson in gymnasium. R.-f. kylix. Munich, 515. (Arch. Zeit., 1885, xi.)	[474]
175. Scenes in apodyterion of gymnasium. R.-f. kylix. Copenhagen. (Gerh. A. V. 281)	[475]
176. Scene in apodyterion. R.-f. krater. Berlin, 2180. (Arch. Zeit., 1879, 4)	[476]
177. Boxing, massage. Bronze cista. Vatican. (Mus. Greg. i. 37)	[477]
178. Korykos. Small r.-f. amphora. St. Petersburg, Hermitage, 1611. (Annali, 1870, R.)	[478]
179. Korykos. Ficoroni cista. Kirchner Museum, Rome. (Müller-Wieseler, Denkmäl. d. alt. Kunst, i. 61, 309)	[479]
180. Men washing at fountain. B.-f. hydria. Leyden, 7794 b. (Roulez, Choix de vases peints du Musée de Leyde, Pl. xix.)	[480]
181. Youths washing at a public basin. R.-f. vase. (Tischbein, Vases Hamilton, i. 58)	[481]
182. Youths washing at a basin. R.-f. kylix. British Museum, E. 83. (Gerh. A. V. 277; Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, Fig. 36)	[482]
183. Strigil in British Museum, inscribed with owner’s name Κέλων. Fifth century. (B.M. Bronzes, 256)	[483]
184. Plan of gymnasium at Delphi. (B.C.H., 1899, Pl. xiii.)	[484]
185. Plan of palaestra at Olympia. (Olympia, Taf. lxxiii.)	[487]
186. Stele of Diodorus, a gymnasiarch; showing oil-tank, crown, palms, votive tablets, and wrestler’s cap. Found at Prusa. Imperial period. (Berichte d. Sächsischen Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften, 1873, Pl. i.; Schreiber, Atlas, xxi. 6)	[490]
187. Plan of lower gymnasium, Priene. (Priene, Fig. 271)	[493]
188. Bath-room in gymnasium, Priene. (Priene, Fig. 278)	[495]
189. Plan of gymnasia at Pergamum. (Simplified from Ath. Mitth. xxix. Pl. viii.; xxxiii. Pl. xviii.)	[499]
190. Stele representing victorious crew. Athens. Hellenistic period. (J.H.S. xi. p. 149)	[508]

LIST OF THE COMMONEST ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE NOTES

Arch. Zeit	Archäologische Zeitung.
Ath. Mitth.	Mittheilungen des Deutschen Arch. Inst., Athenische Abtheilung.
B.C.H.	Bulletin de Correspondance hellénique.
Berl. Vas.	Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung zu Berlin.
B.M. Bronzes	British Museum Catalogue of Bronzes.
B.M.C.	British Museum Catalogue of Greek Coins.
B.M. Vases	British Museum Catalogue of Vases, 1893, etc.
B.S.A.	Annual of the British School at Athens.
C.I.G.	Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum.
C.R.	Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions.
Dar.-Sagl.	Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités.
Ditt. Syll.	Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum.
Ἐφ. Ἀρχ.	Ἐφημερὶς Ἀρχαιολογική.
Gerhard, A. V.	Gerhard, Auserlesene Vasenbilder.
Greek Sculpture	E. A. Gardner, Handbook of Greek Sculpture.
I.G.	Inscriptions Graecae.
Jahrb.	Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts.
J.H.S.	Journal of Hellenic Studies.
Krause, Gym.	J. H. Krause, Die Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen.
Mon. d. I.	Monumenti dell’ Instituto.
Ol.	Olympia. Die Ergebnisse der Ausgrabung.
Ol. Ins.	Die Inschriften von Olympia = Textb. v. of “Die Ergebnisse.”
Ox. Pap.	Grenfell and Hunt, Oxyrhynchus Papyri.
Rev. Arch.	Revue Archéologique.
Röm. Mitth.	Mittheilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abtheilung.

PART I
A HISTORY OF GREEK ATHLETICS AND ATHLETIC FESTIVALS FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO 393 A.D.

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY

The recent revival of the Olympic games is a striking testimony to the influence which ancient Greece still exercises over the modern world, and to the important place which athletics occupied in the life of the Greeks. Other nations may have given equal attention to the physical education of the young; other nations may have been equally fond of sport; other nations may have produced individual athletes, individual performances equal or superior to those of the Greeks, but nowhere can we find any parallel to the athletic ideal expressed in the art and literature of Greece, or to the extraordinary vitality of her athletic festivals. The growth of this ideal, and the history of the athletic festivals, are the subject of the following chapters.

The athletic ideal of Greece is largely due to the practical character of Greek athletics. Every Greek had to be ready to take the field at a moment’s notice in defence of hearth and home, and under the conditions of ancient warfare his life and liberty depended on his physical fitness. This is especially true of the earlier portion of Greek history, but is more or less true of the whole period with which we are concerned. Greece was never free from war—wars of faction, wars of state against state, wars against foreign invaders—and ancient warfare made no distinction between combatants and non-combatants. Every citizen was a soldier, physical fitness was a necessity to him, and his athletic exercises were admirably calculated to produce this fitness. Running and jumping made him active and sound of wind; throwing the diskos and the spear trained hand and eye for the use of weapons; wrestling and boxing taught him to defend himself in hand-to-hand warfare.