River and Canal Engineering, the characteristics of open flowing streams, and the principles and methods to be followed in dealing with them.

by E. S. Bellasis

Pitching and Bed Protection ([Chap. VI., Art. 3], and [Chap. X., Art. 2]).—Any scour upstream of a weir is merely due to the eddies formed upstream of the crest (Hydraulics, Chap. II., Art. 7), and is not serious. And, similarly, as to scour upstream of a pier. A hole formed alongside a pier or obstruction, if there is no floor, may work upstream. The chief use of a floor extending far upstream is to flatten the hydraulic gradient ([Chap. X., Art. 3]).

For pitching of the sides, monolithic concrete is not very suitable, because it may settle unequally and crack. For heavy pitching, concrete blocks can be used. They can rest on a layer of 3 to 6 inches of rammed ballast or gravel. The toe wall, as shown in [fig. 13], page 65, is sometimes dispensed with, the pitching being merely continued to a suitable depth below the bed, and the bottom edge being at right angles to the slope instead of horizontal. The portion below the bed may be of concrete.

INDEX

• Abrupt changes in streams, [28].
• Alterations in a channel, upstream effect, [4].
• Aqueduct, Kali Nadi, [149].
• Available rainfall, [9].
• Bank protection, [60].
• — — artificial weeds, [70].
• — — berms, [70].
• — — bushing, [68].
• — — fascining, [66].
• — — heavy stone pitching with apron, [71].
• — — on the Adige, [67].
• — — reinforced concrete, [70].
• — — rolls of wire-netting, [70], [140].
• — — staking, [69].
• — — trees, [68].
• — — twig revetment, [68].
• — — Villa system, [69].
• Banks, [92].
• — Bell’s guide, [137].
• — continuous lining of, [64].
• — dimensions of, [93].
• — guide, [137].
• — side slopes of, [92].
• Barrage of the Nile, Assiut, [117].
• Bars, river, [203].
• Bed, protection of, [58].
• — — Villa system, [59].
• Bell’s guide banks, [137].
• Bends, effect of, [44].
• — short cuts of, [44].
• Bengal Dooars Railway, bridge and floods, [139].
• Bifurcation of a channel, [53].
• Birmingham water supply, [173].
• Borrow-pits in bed of channel, [53].
• Breakwaters, converging, [207].
• Bridges, [132].
• — foundations or floor, [132].
• — on Indian rivers, [134].
• — piers and abutments, [132].
• — protection of, [137].
• — at Wazirabad, [134].
• British Rainfall Organisation, [9].
• Canalisation of rivers, [84].
• Canals, [92].
• — fall, [113].
• — headworks, [54].
• — navigation, [93].
• — rapid, [113].
• — Ship, [95].
• Catchment area, “yield,” [9].
• Channel, alterations in, [4].
• Chanoine falling shutters, [121].
• Chenab River at Shershah, [210].
• Choice of types of work, [3].
• Closures of streams, Colorado River, [80].
• — — cradle for, [78].
• — — Tista River, [81].
• Collection of information concerning streams, [18].
• Colorado River, closure of, [80].
• Conduits, [92], [100].
• Cradle for closing streams, [78].
• Culverts, [135].
• — flooding of, [136].
• Dams, culvert of, [180].
• — design of masonry, [181].
• — earthen, [174].
• — masonry [181].
• — — construction of, [185].
• — — design, [181].
• — — failures of, [185].
• — — stresses in, [185].
• — pitching of, [179].
• — reservoir, [162].
• — Sidhnai Canal, [117].
• — tower for culvert, [180].
• Dee estuary, [201].
• Dera Ghazi Khan, Indus at, [71].
• Discharge curves, [23].
• — observations, [21].
• — tables, [24].
• Divide wall, Gagera branch canal, [209].
• Drainage, [141].
• Dredging and excavating, [84], [88].
• Drift, littoral, [205].
• Eddies, scouring power of, [28].
• Embankments, [156].
• — design of, [157].
• — Holland, [159].
• — Irrawaddy, [159].
• — Rhine, [159].
• — slips in, [177].
• Estuaries, Dee, [201].
• — Mersey, [202].
• — Seine, [200].
• — tidal, [197].
• Fall, canal, [113].
• Fallacies in hydraulics, [5].
• Falling shutters, Chanoine, [121].
• — — Fouracres, [121].
• — — Khanki, [124].
• — — Thénard’s, [121].
• Flood discharge, estimating, [148].
• Floods, [141], [146].
• — Bengal Dooars Railway, [139].
• — formulæ for, [147].
• — prediction, [150].
• — prevention, [153].
• Flowing stream, closure of, [75].
• Ford in a river, [43].
• Forests and vegetation, influence of, on rainfall, [14].
• Formulæ for floods, [147].
• Groynes or spurs, [58], [60], [61].
• — on the Indus, [53].
• Guide banks, [137].
• Headworks of a canal, [54].
• Holland, embankments, [159].
• Hurdle dykes, [79].
• Hydraulics of open streams, [4].
• — — fallacies in, [209].
• Important works, precautions at, [130].
• Indian rivers and bridges, [134].
• Indus, groynes on, [53].
• Information concerning streams, collection of, [18].
• Inundation canal, flume in, [209].
• Irrawaddy, embankments, [159].
• Irrigation channels in embankment, [52].
• Irwell, weir on, [124].
• Jetties, in continuation of river banks, [204].
• — Mississippi, [205].
• — Richmond River, New South Wales, [206].
• Kali Nadi, aqueduct, [149].
• Khanki, falling shutters at, [124].
• Leakage, stoppage of, [78].
• Lockage, [98].
• Locks, [96].
• — in flights, [98].
• Mersey estuary, [202].
• Mississippi jetties, [48].
• Narora weir, [109].
• Navigation canals, [93].
• Needles, regulator, [117].
• New South Wales, available rainfall, [12].
• Obstruction, effect of, [5].
• Obstructions in streams, [28].
• Okla weir, [112].
• Open streams, hydraulics of, [4].
• Perishable materials, use of, [4].
• Permanent régime of streams, [29].
• Pitching, [64].
• Prediction of floods, [150].
• Prevention of floods, [153].
• Protection of banks (see Bank protection).
• Rainfall, [6].
• — available, [9], [26].
• — — New South Wales, [9].
• — — Sudbury River, Massachusetts, [12].
• — — various countries, [11].
• — British Organisation, [9].
• — “catchment area,” “basin,” [9].
• — distribution of, [7].
• — driest year, [7].
• — evaporation, [9].
• — heavy falls in short periods, [15].
• — influence of cultivation, [15].
• — — of forests and vegetation, [14].
• — local figures, [8].
• — measurement of, [13].
• — observations, period of, [7].
• — statistics, [6].
• — variation of, [6].
• Rain-gauge, [8], [13].
• Rapid, canal, [113].
• Regulators, [118].
• Reservoirs, [162].
• — capacity, [167].
• — compensation water, [162].
• — leakage, [163].
• — waste weir, [164].
• Résumé of the subject, [1].
• Rhine, embankments, [159].
• Richmond river, jetties, [206].
• — weir at, [119].
• River bars, [203].
• — training groynes, [85].
• — — walls, [85].
• Rivers, deltaic, [203].
• — floods in, [146].
• — non-deltaic, [205].
• — tidal, [192].
• — training and canalisation, [84], [89].
• Run-off in small streams, [143].
• Salt water, effect of, [29].
• Sand separator, [34].
• Sandbanks, [47].
• Scour (see Silt and scour).
• Seine estuary, [200].
• Set of stream, effect of, [5].
• Ship canals, [95].
• Shutters, self-acting, Switzerland and Bavaria, [127].
• Silting and scouring, [27].
• Silt and scour, action at bends, [42].
• — — — on sides of channel, [40].
• — — effect of regulator or movable weir, [49].
• — — in the Sirhind Canal, [32], [54].
• — — increasing or reducing, [48].
• — — materials carried in suspension, [3].
• — — methods of investigation, [33].
• — — practical formulæ and figures, [37].
• — — production of, [48].
• — — rolled materials, [29].
• — — sand separator, [34].
• — — scrapers or harrows, [48].
• — clay and sand, [36].
• — deposit, production of, [51].
• — in river Sutlej, [35].
• — in river Tay, [35].
• — quantity and distribution of, [35].
• — upstream of weirs, [103].
• Sidhnai Canal, dam, [117].
• Sirhind Canal, silt and scour in, [32], [54].
• Slips in embankments, [177].
• Sluice gates, Stoney’s, [119].
• Sluices, [102].
• Small streams, floods in, [141].
• Soundings, [21].
• Spurs or groynes, [58], [60], [61].
• Stream gauges, [19].
• — diversions of, [73].
• — general tendencies of, [45].
• — information concerning intermittent, [25].
• — — — small, [24], [25].
• — overflow, [46].
• — shifting, [20], [47].
• Sudbury River, Massachusetts, available rainfall, [12].
• Surface slope observations, [22].
• Survey of a stream, [21].
• Sutlej River, silt in, [35].
• Syphons, [132], [135].
• Tay River, silt in, [35].
• Teddington, weir at, [119].
• Tidal estuaries, works in, [198].
• — river, diagrammatic route-guide, [196].
• — rivers, [192].
• — works in, [196].
• Tide-gauges, [192].
• Tides, [190].
• Tista River, closure of, [81].
• Training of rivers, [84].
• Types of work, choice of, [3].
• Upper Jhelum Canal, syphons to carry torrents, [144].
• Velocities which enable a stream to scour, [40].
• Villa system of bank protection, [69].
• — — bed protection, [59].
• Waste weir, hydraulic problem, [165].
• Water supply, Birmingham, [173].
• Waterway, area of, in regulators, [129].
• Wave, travel of, down a stream, [152].
• Waves, effect of, [29].
• Wazirabad, bridge at, [134].
• Weeds, artificial, [70].
• — growth of, [29].
• Weirs, [102].
• — adjustable, [126].
• — Bear Trap, [123].
• — drum, [127].
• — frame, [120].
• — general design of, [105].
• — Narora, [109].
• — oblique, [103].
• — Okla, [112].
• — on sandy or porous soil, [106].
• — Richmond, [119].
• — silt deposit, upstream of, [103].
• — types of, [111].
• — waste, [164].
• — with sluices, [115].
• Wire-netting for bank protection, [70], [140].
• Works, design and execution of, [3].
• Zifta Regulator, [109].

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FOOTNOTES:

[1] Min. Proc. Inst. C.E.

[2] Engineering News.

[3] Encyclopædia Britannica.

[4] The paper by Spring—in size it is a book—will repay perusal by engineers engaged on railway bridges over large shifting rivers. London Agents, Constable & Co.