His disciple, Roger Bacon, was also a monk; he studied in Paris and afterwards removed to Oxford, England, where he actively devoted himself to natural science, especially physics. He left behind him remarkable observations on the refraction of light; explanation of the formation of rainbows, inventing the magnifying glass and telescope. His investigations in alchemy led him to discover a combustible body similar to phosphorus, while his work on “Old Age” (De retardtandus senectutis occidentibus) entitled him to a high position among the physicians of the thirteenth century. Although one of the founders of experimental science, one of the initiators—if the expression may be used—of scientific positivism, he also devoted much time to astrology. Denounced as a magician and sorcerer by his own confreres in religion, he was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and was only released a few years before his death, leaving many writings on almost every branch of science.
It was more than a century after these two great men died that medical science commenced its upward flight.
Anatomy, proscribed by the Catholic Church, had an instant’s toleration in the middle of the thirteenth century, thanks to the protection of Frederick II., King of the Two Sicilies. But an edict of Pope Boniface VIII., published in 1300, forbid dissections once more, not only in Italy, but in all countries under Papal rule. Nevertheless, in 1316, Mondinus, called the restorer of anatomy, being professor at the University of Bologna, had the courage to dissect the cadavers of two patients in public; he then published an account of the same, which Springer declares had “the advantage of having been made after nature, and which is preferable to all works on anatomy published since Galen’s time.”
Some years later the prejudice against human dissection disappeared in France, and anatomy was allowed to be taught by the Faculties of Paris and Montpellier. Henri de Hermondaville, Pierre de Cerlata, and Nicholas Bertrucci were particularly distinguished anatomists during the fourteenth century, and traced the scientific path followed by Vesalius, Fallopius, Eustachius, Fabrica de Aguapendente, Sylvius, Plater, Varola de Torre, Charles Etienne, Ingrassias, and Arantius in the sixteenth century.
From this time dates the escape of medicine from ecclesiastical authority.
In 1452, Cardinal d’Estouteville, charged by the Pope with the reorganization of the University of Paris, obtained a revocation of the order obliging celibacy, claiming it to be “impious and senseless” in the case of doctors.
It was at this moment that the Faculty of Physicians renounced the hospitality of the University and installed themselves in a house on the Rue de la Bucherie, the same being graciously tendered them by Jacques Desparts, physician to the King. This faculty now opened a register of its acts, which later became the Commentaries of the Society, and, already confident of a brilliant future and its own strength, the college engraved on its escutcheon these words: “Urbi et Orbi Salus,” and declared itself the guardian of antique morality; veteris disciplinæ retinentissima. Soon the dean of the faculty obtained from royalty the right to coin medals, the same being bestowed on physicians who rendered valuable public services; these bore the imprint of the college coat of arms, and Guy Patin went so far as to issue his own coined effigy in 1632 A.D.
The royal authority still further aided the medical profession and the faculty in gathering students: for instance, an order was issued granting physicians titles of nobility and coats of arms in cases of great merit; they were also exempted from taxes and other contributions to the crown, for, says Louis XIV., who speaks, “We cannot withhold such marks of honor to men of learning and others who by their devotion to a noble profession and personal merit are entitled to a rank of high distinction.” Besides, some of the greatest names in France were inscribed on the registers of the faculty; let us cite, for instance, Prader, Mersenne, Saint Yon, Montigny, Mauvillain, Sartes, Revelois, Montrose, Farcy, Jurency, and others. Can it be astonishing that the Faculty of Medicine, considering such high favors, was so deeply attached to the royalty that gave liberty and reputation to the great thinkers of the age?
The dean, who before the thirteenth century only had the title Magister Scolarum, administered the affairs of the faculty without control, and was recognized as the chief hierarch of the corporation; but he was elected by all the professors, and often chosen outside the professors of the Faculty. This high office was thus duly dignified, and it was only justice.
Above the dean, however, was the first Physician to the King, who was a high officer of the crown, having the same rights and privileges as the nobility, securing on his appointment the title of Count with hereditary transmission of same to his family; he was also a Councillor of State and wore the costume and decorations of this order. When he came to the faculty meetings he was received by the dean and bachelors, for he was also grand master of hygiene and legal medicine in the realm; he named all the salaried medical appointments, notably those of experts in medical jurisprudence.