We have named and characterized as far as our limits will admit, and the nature of the subject requires, the principal officers who exercise authority in Canton; the reader will doubtless find it difficult, as we have done, to determine the exact limitation of their respective spheres, which, like the courses of the planets, often seem to intersect each other. At first sight of so many bodies, all in motion within limits so narrow, we feel surprised that they do not come into collision, destroy each other and carry destruction through the empire. On a close inspection, however, we are able to discover some of the secret laws which govern this complicated system, preserve it in being, and keep it in motion. Two influences, the one military, and the other literary, are perhaps the principal forces which regulate and control the measures of the Chinese government. Religion, which often has a gigantic power over governments, is here blended with civil and state ceremonies, and exerts but a feeble, and usually a most baneful influence on the political destinies of the nation.
All the officers enumerated in the foregoing list, excepting the two che-heens, the che-foo, and the tseang-keun, are general officers—their jurisdiction extending to all other parts of the province, as well as over the metropolis. There are likewise two other officers, commanders-in-chief of the land and naval forces, who, like the other members of the provincial government, act alone in certain cases, and sometimes in concert with the other general officers. The government is despotic as well as military; and so constructed, that those who form the provincial government, shall, while they enjoy a degree of independence, serve as mutual checks; while at the same time, each superior officer is held responsible for those who are subordinate, and accountable for himself. Even in the location of these officers, there has been a cautious reference to “division and balance of power.” For example: the tsung-tuh is stationed in the new city, almost within a stone’s-throw of his majesty’s most faithful “slave,” the hoppo; the foo-yuen and the tsang-kuen are placed in similar positions in reference to each other: these two last are so located in the old city, that, should circumstances require, they could act against the two first, in the new city. The same principle is observable likewise, if we mistake not, in the disposition which is made of the troops. The whole land and naval force throughout the province, has been estimated (nominally) at about one hundred thousand men; all of whom are with fixed limitations, under the control of the governor; he has, however, the immediate and sole command of only five thousand, and these are stationed at a distance from the city. On all ordinary occasions, except when he goes to a distance from Canton, he is escorted by a detachment from the kwang-chow-hee, (the chief military officer of Kwang-chow,) which, in the absence of his own troops, serves him for a body-guard, and constitutes, at the same time, a part of the police of the city. The foo-yuen has only two thousand at his command; while the tseang-keun has five thousand, which, in an extreme case, would enable him to become master of the city. The proper seat of the governor is at Shaou-king-foo, several miles west of this city; but on account of the superior advantages of Canton, he is allowed to reside here; he cannot, however, bring his troops hither, lest, in conjunction with the foo-yuen, they should prove more than a match for the Tartar general-commandant and his five thousand fighting men. It should be remarked here, that no individual can hold an office in any province, department, or district of the empire, that includes the place of his nativity, or that extends within several hundred le of it.
The whole number of soldiers, ordinarily quartered in the city, does not probably exceed seven thousand. There are in the immediate vicinity of Canton, a few small forts, and the city itself is intended to be a stronghold; but neither is in such a state that they would serve any very valuable purposes of defence. Even the late rain-storm carried away one of the gates of the city, and opened a wide breach in the walls. Most of the forts are dismantled and defenceless, and present nothing more formidable than the frightful paintings of tiger’s heads, on the wooden lids which block up their port-holes. The two follies, Dutch and French follies as they are called, are situated in the river opposite to the city, and are fair specimens of the forts about Canton; there are likewise for the defence of the city, what have been called cavalry, and artillery; but of these, we have heard little, and seen nothing. Of the Tartar troops, there are two hundred chosen men, who on state occasions, appear well clad and warlike; but, generally, the soldiers are badly equipped, and poorly disciplined. All their armour and accoutrements, consisting of shields and helmets, bows and arrows, spears and javelins, short-swords and matlocks, seem ill fitted either for defence or attack; the heavy losses sustained by the troops of Canton, during the late highland war at Seen-chow, fully confirm these remarks; as do also recent imperial edicts, in which the soldiery are accused of idleness and lazy habits, and of “indulging in all the softness of civilians;” the police of the city is on the whole, vigilant and efficient. Besides those who act in the capacity of constables, thief-takers, &c., constituting the regular police, there are many neighbourhoods, as well as private individuals, which make arrangements for a constant nocturnal watch during the night; almost all the streets of the city are shut up by strong gates at each end; near one of which there is usually a guard-house. The night-watches are distinguished by bells, or some similar instruments kept by the watchmen, in the winter months, when there is great danger from fire, as well as thieves. Watch-towers are built on bamboo poles, high above the roofs of the houses; thus constituting a double watch. When thieves are discovered, or when a fire breaks out in any part of the city, the alarm by means of the watchmen, spreads quickly from one extremity of the city to the other. When riotous assemblies collect in the streets, they are, in most cases, speedily dissolved by a vigorous application of the bamboo or whip; many, doubtless, “shove by justice,” and to the day of their death go unpunished; yet the number who are arrested and brought to trial, annually, is very great; justice is often administered in the most summary manner; not unfrequently, in minor cases, the man receives the punishment, and again goes free, the same hour in which he commits the crime.
JUSTICE—JAILS.
The forms of trial are simple: there is no jury, no pleading; the criminal kneels before the magistrate, who hears the witnesses and passes sentence; he is then remanded to prison, or sent to the place of execution. Seldom is he acquitted; when witnesses are wanting, he is sometimes tortured until he gives evidence against himself.
There are four jails in Canton; which together contain several hundred prisoners; the jail is called te-yo, hell, or literally “earth’s prison.” All capital offenders suffer just without the southern gates, near the river; hundreds die there annually. When brought to the fatal spot, they kneel with their faces towards the emperor’s court, and bending forward in the attitude of submission and thanksgiving, suddenly expire beneath the bloody sword of the executioner.
CHAPTER VIII.
LITERARY INSTITUTIONS OF CHINA—EXAMINATIONS—SCHOOLS—TEACHERS—SCHOOL-ROOM CEREMONIES—COLLEGES—DOMESTIC COMMERCE—POPULATION OF THE PROVINCES—IMPORTS—EXPORTS.