The Historical Geography of Europe, Vol. I, Text

by Edward A. Freeman

I have to thank a crowd of friends, including some whom I have never seen, for many hints, and for much help given in various ways. Such are Professor Pauli of Göttingen, Professor Steenstrup of Copenhagen, Professor Romanos of Corfu, M. J.-B. Galiffe of Geneva, Dr. Paul Turner of Budapest, Professor A. W. Ward of Manchester, the Rev. H. F. Tozer, Mr. Ralston, Mr. Morfill, Mrs. Humphry Ward, and my son-in-law Arthur John Evans, whose praise is in all South-Slavonic lands.

Somerleaze, Wells:
December 16, 1880.

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[CONTENTS.]

CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
	PAGE
Definition of Historical Geography	[1]
Its relation to kindred studies	[1-2]
Distinction between geographical and political names	[3-5]
§ 1. Geographical Aspect of Europe.
Boundaries of Europe and Asia	[5-6]
General geography of the two continents—the great peninsulas	[6-7]
§ 2. Effects of Geography on History.
Beginnings of history in the southern peninsulas—characteristicsof Greece and Italy	[7-8]
Advance and extent of the Roman dominion; the Mediterranean lands, Gaul, and Britain	[8-9]
Effects of the geographical position of Germany, France,Spain, Scandinavia, Britain	[9-10]
Effect of geographical position on the colonizing powers	[10]
Joint working of geographical position and national character	[11]
§ 3. Geographical Distribution of Races.
Europe an Aryan continent—non-Aryan remnants andlatter settlements	[12]
Fins and Basques	[13]
Order of Aryan settlements; Greeks and Italians	[13]
Celts, Teutons, Slaves, Lithuanians	[14-15]
Displacement and assimilation among the Aryan races	[16]
Intrusion of non-Aryans; Saracens	[16]
Turanian intrusions; Bulgarians; Magyars; Ottomans;differences in their history	[17]
CHAPTER II.
GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES.
§ 1. The Eastern or Greek Peninsula.
Geographical and historical characteristics of the Eastern,Greek, or Byzantine peninsula	[18-19]
Its chief divisions; Thrace and Illyria; their relations toGreece	[19-20]
Greece Proper and its peninsulas	[20-21]
Peloponnêsos	[21]
§ 2. Insular and Asiatic Greece.
Extent of Continuous Hellas	[21]
The Islands	[22]
Asiatic Greece	[22-23]
§ 3. Ethnology of the Eastern Peninsula.
The Greeks and the kindred races	[23]
Illyrians, Albanians, or Skipetar	[24]
Inhabitants of Epeiros, Macedonia, Sicily, and Italy	[24]
Pelasgians	[24-25]
The Greek Nation	[25]
§ 4. Earliest Geography of Greece and the Neighbouring Lands.
Homeric Greece: its extent and tribal divisions	[25-27]
Use of the name Epeiros	[26]
The cities: their groupings unlike those of later times;supremacy of Mykênê	[27]
Extent of Greek colonization in Homeric times	[28]
The Asiatic catalogue	[28]
Probable kindred of all the neighbouring nations	[28]
Phœnician and Greek settlements in the islands	[28]
§ 5. Change from Homeric to Historic Greece.
Changes in Peloponnêsos; Dorian and Aitolian settlements	[29]
Later divisions of Peloponnêsos	[29-30]
Change in Northern Greece; Thessaly	[30]
Akarnania and the Corinthian colonies	[31]
Foundation and destruction of cities	[31]
§ 6. The Greek Colonies.
The Ægæan and Asiatic colonies	[32-33]
Early greatness of the Asiatic cities; Milêtos	[32]
Their submission to Lydians and Persians	[32-33]
The Thracian colonies; abiding greatness of Thessalonikêand Byzantion	[33]
More distant colonies; Sicily, Italy, Dalmatia	[33-34]
Parts of the Mediterranean not colonized by the Greeks;Phœnician settlements; struggles in Sicily andCyprus	[34-35]
Greek colonies in Africa, Gaul, and Spain	[35]
Colonies on the Euxine; abiding greatness of Cherson andTrebizond	[36]
Beginning of the artificial Greek nation	[36]
§ 7. Growth of Macedonia and Epeiros.
Growth of Macedonia; Philip; Alexander and the Successors;effects of their conquests	[37]
Epeiros under Pyrrhos; Athamania	[37]
The Macedonian kingdoms; Egypt; Syria	[38]
Independent states in Asia; Pergamos	[38]
Asiatic states; advance of Greek culture	[39]
Free cities; Hêrakleia	[39]
Sinôpê; Bosporos	[39]
§ 8. Later Geography of Independent Greece.
The Confederations; Achaia, Aitolia; smaller confederations	[40]
Macedonian possessions	[40]
First Roman possessions east of the Hadriatic	[40]
Progress of Roman conquest in Macedonia and Greece	[41]
Special character of Greek history	[42]
CHAPTER III.
FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
Meanings of the name Italy; its extent under the Romancommonwealth	[43]
Characteristics of the Italian peninsula; the great islands	[44]
§ 1. The Inhabitants of Italy and Sicily.
Ligurians and Etruscans	[45]
The Italian nations; Latins and Oscans	[45-46]
Other nations; Iapygians; Gauls; Veneti; use of the nameVenetia	[46-47]
Greek colonies in Italy; Kymê and Ankôn	[47]
The southern colonies; their history	[47-48]
Inhabitants of Sicily; Sikanians and Sikels	[48]
Phœnician and Greek settlements; rivalry of Aryan andSemitic powers	[48-49]
§ 2. Growth of the Roman Power in Italy.
Gradual conquest of Italy; different positions of the Italianstates	[49]
Origin of Rome; its Latin element dominant	[49-50]
Early Latin dominion of Rome	[50]
Conquest of Veii; more distant wars	[50]
Incorporation of the Italian states	[50-51]
§ 3. The Western Provinces.
Nature of the Roman provinces	[51]
Eastern and Western provinces	[52]
First Roman possessions in Sicily; conquest of Syracuse	[53]
State of Sicily; its Greek civilization	[53]
Sardinia and Corsica	[53-54]
Cisalpine Gaul	[54-55]
Liguria; Venetia; Istria; foundation of Aquileia	[55]
Spain; its inhabitants; Iberians; Celts; Greek and Phœniciancolonies	[55-56]
Conquest and Romanization of Spain	[56-57]
Transalpine Gaul; the Province	[57]
Conquests of Cæsar; threefold division of Gaul	[57-58]
Boundaries of Gaul purely geographical; survival of nomenclature	[57-58]
Roman Africa; restoration of Carthage	[58-60]
§ 4. The Eastern Provinces.
Contrast between the Eastern and Western provinces; Greekcivilization in the East	[60]
Distinctions among the Eastern provinces; boundary ofTauros	[60-61]
The Illyrian provinces; kingdom of Skodra; conquest ofDalmatia and Istria	[62-63]
The outlying Greek lands: Crete, Cyprus, Kyrênê	[63]
The Asiatic provinces; province of Asia; Mithridatic War;independence of Lykia	[64]
Syria; Palestine	[65]
Rome and Parthia	[65]
Conquest of Egypt; the Roman Peace	[66]
§ 5. Conquests under the Empire.
Conquests from Augustus to Nero; incorporation of vassalkingdoms	[66-67]
Attempted conquest of Germany; frontiers of Rhine andDanube; conquests on the Danube	[67-68]
Attempt on Arabia	[68]
Annexation of Thrace and Byzantion	[68]
Conquest of Britain; the wall	[69]
Conquests of Trajan; his Asiatic conquests surrendered byHadrian	[70]
Arabia Petræa	[70]
Dacia; change of the name	[70-71]
Roman, Greek, and Oriental parts of the Empire	[71]
CHAPTER IV.
THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE.
§ 1. The Later Geography of the Empire.
Changes under the Empire; loss of old divisions	[73]
New divisions of Italy under Augustus	[74]
Division of the Empire under Diocletian	[74-75]
The four Prætorian Prefectures	[75]
Prefecture of the East; its character	[75-76]
Its dioceses; the East; Egypt, Asia, Pontos	[76]
Diocese of Thrace; provinces of Scythia and Europa	[76-77]
Great cities of the Eastern prefecture	[77]
Prefecture of Illyricum; position of Greece	[77-78]
Dioceses of Macedonia and Dacia; province of Achaia	[78]
Prefecture of Italy; its extent	[78]
Dioceses of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa; greatness of Carthage	[79]
Prefecture of Gaul	[79]
Diocese of Spain; its African territory	[79]
Dioceses of Gaul and Britain; province of Valentia	[79-80]
§ 2. The Division of the Empire.
Change in the position of Rome	[80]
Division of the Empire, A.D. 395	[81]
Rivalry with Parthia and Persia inherited by the EasternEmpire	[81-82]
Teutonic invasions; no Teutonic settlements in the East	[82-83]
§ 3. The Teutonic Settlements within the Empire.
The Wandering of the Nations	[83]
New nomenclature of the Teutonic nations	[83-84]
Warfare on the Rhine and Danube; Roman outposts beyondthe rivers	[84]
Teutonic confederations; Marcomanni; Quadi	[84-85]
Franks, Alemans, Saxons; Germans within the Empire	[85-86]
Beginning of national kingdoms	[86]
Loss of the Western provinces of Rome	[86]
Settlements within the Empire by land and by sea	[87]
Franks, Burgundians, Goths, Vandals	[87-88]
Early history of the Goths	[88-89]
The West-Gothic kingdom in Gaul and Spain	[89-90]
Alans, Suevi, Vandals; the Vandals in Africa	[89-90]
The Franks; use of the name Francia	[91]
Alemans, Thuringians; Low-Dutch tribes	[91]
The Frankish dominions; Roman Germany Teutonizedafresh; peculiar position of the Franks	[91-93]
Celtic remnant in Armorica or Britanny	[93]
The Burgundians; various uses of the name Burgundy;separate history of Provence	[93-94]
Inroads of the Huns; battle of Châlons; origin of Venice	[94]
Nominal reunion of the Empire in 476	[94]
Reigns of Odoacer and Theodoric	[94-95]
§ 4. Settlement of the English in Britain.
Withdrawal of the Roman troops from Britain	[95]
Special character of the English Conquest of Britain	[96]
The Low-Dutch settlers, Angles, Saxons, Jutes; origin ofthe name English	[97]
The Welsh and Scots	[98]
§ 5. The Eastern Empire.
Comparison of the two Empires; no Teutonic settlementsin the Eastern	[98]
The Tetraxite Goths	[98]
Rivalry with Parthia continued under the revived Persiankingdom	[98-99]
Position of Armenia	[99]
Momentary conquests of Trajan	[99]
Conquests of Marcus, Severus, and Diocletian; cessions ofJovian	[100]
Division of Armenia; Hundred Years’ Peace	[100]
Summary	[101-102]
CHAPTER V.
THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.
§ 1. The Reunion of the Empire.
Continued existence of the Empire; position of the Teutonickings	[103]
Extent of the Empire at the accession of Justinian	[104]
Conquests of Justinian; their effects	[104-106]
Provence ceded to the Franks	[105]
§ 2. Settlement of the Lombards in Italy.
Early history of the Lombards; Gepidæ, Avars	[106-107]
Possibility of Teutonic powers on the Danube	[107]
Lombard conquest of Italy; its partial nature; territorykept by the Empire	[107-108]
§ 3. Rise of the Saracens.
Loss of the Spanish province by the Empire	[108]
Wars of Chosroes and Heraclius	[109]
Extension of Roman power on the Euxine	[109-110]
Relation of the Arabs to Rome and Persia	[110]
Union of the Arabs under Mahomet; renewed Aryan andSemitic strife	[110]
Loss of the Eastern and African provinces of Rome	[111]
Saracen conquest of Persia	[111]
Conquest of Spain; Saracen province in Gaul	[111-112]
Effects of the Saracen conquests; distinction between theLatin, Greek, and Eastern provinces	[112]
Greatest extent of Saracen provinces	[112]
Loss of Septimania	[113]
§ 4. Settlements of the Slavonic Nations.
Movements of the Slaves; Avars, Magyars, &c.	[113-114]
Geographical separation of the Slaves	[114]
Analogy between Teutons and Slaves	[114]
Slavonic settlements under Heraclius; the Dalmatian cities;displacement of the Illyrians	[115]
Slavonic settlements in Greece	[115-116]
Settlement of the Bulgarians	[116]
Curtailment of the Empire; moral influence of Constantinople	[116-117]
§ 5. The Transfer of the Western Empire to the Franks.
Conquests of the Franks in Germany and Gaul	[117-119]
Their position in Germany, Northern Gaul, and SouthernGaul	[119-120]
Division of the Frankish dominion; Austria and Neustria	[120-121]
Use of the name Francia; Teutonic and Latin Francia;modern forms of the name	[121]
The Karlings; their conquests; German character of theirpower	[121-122]
The great powers of the eighth century: Romans, Franks,Saracens	[122]
Character of the Caliphate; its divisions	[122]
Relations between the Franks and the Empire	[123]
Lombard conquest of the Exarchate	[123]
Conquest of the Lombards by Charles the Great; he holdsLombardy as a separate kingdom	[123]
His Roman title of Patrician	[123-124]
Effects of his Imperial coronation; final division of the Empire	[124]
The two Empires become severally German and Greek; theirseparation and rivalry	[124-125]
The two Empires and the two Caliphates	[125-126]
Extent of the Carolingian Empire	[126]
Conquest of Saxony; dealings with Scandinavia; frontier ofthe Eider	[126-127]
Relations with the Slaves; overthrow of the Avars	[127]
The Spanish March	[128]
Divisions of the Empire; kingdoms of Aquitaine andItaly	[128]
Use of the names Francia, Gallia, Germania	[129]
§ 6. Northern Europe.
Lands beyond the Empire: Scandinavia and Britain	[129]
Stages of English Conquest in Britain; Teutonic and Celticstates	[129-130]
Supremacy of Wessex	[130]
Denmark; Norway; Sweden	[130-131]
Different directions of the Scandinavian settlements	[131]
Summary	[131-133]
Religious changes	[132]
Note on the Slavonic settlements	[133]
CHAPTER VI.
THE BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.
§ 1. The Division of the Frankish Empire.
Break-up of the Frankish power; origin of the states ofmodern Europe	[134]
Kingdoms of Italy and Aquitaine	[134]
Division of 817	[135]
Union of Neustria and Aquitaine; first glimpses of modernFrance	[135]
Division of Verdun; Eastern and Western Francia; Lotharingia;the Western Kingdom or Karolingia	[137]
Middle Kingdom or Burgundy	[137]
Union under Charles the Fat; division on his deposition	[137]
No formal titles used; various names for the GermanKingdom	[138]
Connexion between the German Kingdom and the RomanEmpire	[139]
Extent of the German Kingdom; its duchies and marks	[139-140]
Lotharingia	[140-141]
Extent of the Western Kingdom	[141]
Its great fiefs; Aquitaine; France; Normandy cut off fromFrance	[142]
Origin of the French kingdom and nation; union of theduchy of France with the Western kingdom	[143]
New use of the word France; title of Rex Francorum	[143-144]
Paris the kernel of France	[144]
Various uses of the name Burgundy	[144]
The French Duchy; the Middle Kingdom; Transjuraneand Cisjurane Burgundy	[144-145]
Great cities of the Burgundian kingdom	[145]
Separation of Burgundy from the Frankish kingdom; itsunion with Germany	[145-146]
Its later history; mainly swallowed up by France, butpartly represented by Switzerland	[146]
Kingdom of Italy; its extent; separate principalities	[146-147]
Italy represents the Lombard kingdom; Milan its capital	[147]
Abeyance of the Western Empire; its restoration by Ottothe Great; the three Imperial kingdoms	[147-148]
Rivalry between France and the Empire	[148]
§ 2. The Eastern Empire.
Rivalry of the Eastern and Western Empires and Churches;Greek character of the Eastern Empire; fluctuations inits extent	[149]
The Themes; Asiatic Themes	[149-151]
The European Themes; Hellas; Lombardy; Sicily	[151-152]
Older Greek names supplanted by new ones	[151]
Character of the European and Asiatic dominion of the Empire;its supremacy by sea	[152]
Losses and gains; Crete; Sicily; Italy; Dalmatia; Greece;Syria; Bulgaria; Cherson	[152-153]
Greatness of the Empire under Basil the Second	[153]
§ 3. Origin of the Spanish Kingdoms.
Special position of Spain; the Saracen conquest	[153-154]
Growth of the Christian states	[154-155]
Castile; Aragon; Portugal	[155]
Break-up of the Western Caliphate	[156]
§ 4. Origin of the Slavonic States.
Slavonic and Turanian invasions of the Eastern Empire;Bulgarians; Magyars; Great Moravia	[156-157]
Special character of the Hungarian kingdom; effects of itsreligious connexion with the West	[157]
The Northern and Southern Slaves split asunder by theMagyars	[158]
The South-eastern Slaves	[158]
The North-western Slaves; Bohemia; Poland	[159]
Special position of Russia	[159]
§ 5. Northern Europe.
Scandinavian settlements	[159-160]
Growth of the kingdom of England	[160]
The Danish invasions; division between Ælfred and Guthrum;Bernicia; Cumberland	[161]
Second West-Saxon advance; Wessex grows into England;submission of Scotland and Strathclyde; Cumberlandand Lothian	[162]
Use of the Imperial titles by the English kings; NorthernEmpire of Cnut; England finally united by the NormanConquest	[162-163]
Summary	[163-165]
CHAPTER VII.
THE ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.
Permanence of ecclesiastical divisions; they preserve earlierdivisions; case of Lyons and Rheims	[166-167]
Patriarchates, Provinces, Dioceses	[167]
Bishoprics within and without the Empire	[167-168]
§ 1. The Great Patriarchates.
The Patriarchates suggested by the Prefectures	[168]
Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem	[168-169]
Later Patriarchates	[169-170]
§ 2. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Italy.
Great numbers and smaller importance of the Italianbishoprics	[170]
Rivals of Rome; Milan, Aquileia, Ravenna	[171]
The immediate Roman province; other metropolitan sees	[171-172]
§ 3. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Gaul and Germany.
Gaulish and German dioceses	[172]
Provinces of Southern Gaul; position of Lyons	[172-173]
New metropolitan sees; Toulouse, Alby, Avignon, Paris;comparison of civil and ecclesiastical divisions	[174]
Provinces of Northern Gaul and Germany; history of Mainz	[178-179]
The archiepiscopal electors; other German provinces; Salzburg,Bremen, Magdeburg	[176-177]
Modern arrangements in France, Germany, and the Netherlands	[177]
§ 4. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Spain.
Peculiarities of Spanish ecclesiastical geography; effects ofthe Saracen conquest	[178]
Gothic and later dioceses; neglect of the Pyrenæan barrier	[178-179]
§ 5. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of the British Islands.
Analogy between Britain and Spain	[179]
Tribal nature of the Celtic episcopate	[179-180]
Scheme of Gregory the Great; the two English provinces;relation of Scotland to York	[180-181]
Foundation of the English sees; territorial bishoprics	[181]
Canterbury and its suffragan; effects of the Norman Conquest	[181-182]
Province of York; Scotland and Ireland	[182-183]
§ 6. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Northern and Eastern Europe.
The Scandinavian provinces; Lund, Upsala, Trondhjem	[184]
Poland and neighbouring lands; Gnezna, Riga, Leopol	[184-185]
Provinces of Hungary and Dalmatia	[186]
CHAPTER VIII.
THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.
The German Kingdom; its relation to the Western Empire;falling off of Italy and Burgundy	[188-190]
Loss of territory by the German kingdom; its extension tothe north-east	[190-191]
Geographical contrast of the earlier and the later Empire	[191]
§ 1. The Kingdom of Germany.
Changes of boundaries and nomenclature in Germany;Saxony; Bavaria; Austria; Burgundy; Prussia	[191-192]
Extent of the Kingdom; fluctuations of its western boundary;Lorraine; Elsass; the left bank of the Rhine	[192-194]
Fluctuations on the Burgundian frontier; union of Burgundywith the Empire	[194]
Frontier of Germany and Italy; union of the crowns	[195]
Northern and eastern advance of the Empire; the marks	[195]
Hungarian frontier; marks of Austria, Carinthia, and Carniola	[196]
Danish frontier; Danish mark; boundary of the Eider	[196]
The Slavonic frontier	[197]
The Saxon mark; Slavonic princes of Mecklenburg,Lübeck; the Hansa	[198-199]
Marks of Brandenburg, Lausitz, and Meissen	[199]
Bohemia and Moravia	[199]
Polish frontier; Pomerania, Silesia	[200]
Germanization of the Slavonic lands	[200-201]
Internal geography; growth of the principalities	[201]
Growth of the marchlands; Brandenburg or Prussia, andAustria; analogies elsewhere	[202]
Decline of the duchies; end of the Gauverfassung	[202]
Growth of the House of Austria; separation of Switzerlandand the Netherlands	[203]
The Circles	[203]
Powers holding lands within and without the Empire;Austria; Sweden; Brandenburg and Prussia; Hannoverand Great Britain	[203-204]
Dissolution of the kingdom; the Confederation	[204]
Greatness of Prussia and Austria	[204]
The new Empire	[204]
Germany under the Saxon and Frankish kings; vanishingof Francia; analogy of Wessex	[205-206]
Changes in the twelfth century; beginning of Brandenburgand Austria; the duchies and the circles	[206-207]
Duchy of Saxony; its divisions and growth	[207]
Break-up of the duchy; Westfalia; the new Saxony	[207]
Duchy of Brunswick; electorate and kingdom of Hannover	[208]
The new Saxony; Lauenburg; the Saxon Electorate	[208-209]
The North Mark of Saxony or Mark of Brandenburg	[209]
House of Hohenzollern; union of Brandenburg and Prussia	[210]
Advances in Pomerania, Westfalia, &c.	[210]
German character of the Prussian state; its contrast withAustria; use of the name Prussia	[210-211]
Conquest of Silesia; Polish acquisitions of Prussia; EastFriesland	[211-212]
Saxon Possessions of Denmark and Sweden	[212-213]
Free cities of Saxony; the Hansa; the cities and thebishoprics	[213-214]
Duchy of Francia; held by the bishops of Würzburg; theFranconian circle	[214]
The Rhenish circles; Hessen; Bamberg; Nürnberg; theecclesiastical states on the Rhine	[214-215]
Palatinate of the Rhine; Upper Palatinate	[215]
Bavaria; its relations towards the Palatinate and towardsAustria	[215]
Archbishopric of Salzburg	[215]
Lotharingia; falling off from the Empire; the later Lorraineand Elsass	[216]
Swabia; ecclesiastical powers	[216]
Swabian lands of the Confederates	[216]
Baden and Württemberg	[216]
Circle of Austria; house of Habsburg	[217]
Extent of its German lands; Tyrol; Elsass; loss of Swabianlands	[217]
Bohemia and its dependencies	[217]
Trent and Brixen	[217]
Circle of Burgundy; not purely German; its origin	[218]
§ 2. The Confederation and Empire of Germany.
Germany changes from a kingdom to a confederation	[218]
The Bund; the new Confederation and Empire; the Empirestill federal	[219]
Wars of the French Revolution; loss of the left bank of theRhine	[220]
Suppression of free cities and ecclesiastical states; newelectorates	[220]
Peace of Pressburg; new kingdoms; cessions made by Austria	[221]
Title of ‘Emperor of Austria;’ Confederation of the Rhine;end of the Western Empire	[221]
German territories of Denmark and Sweden	[221-222]
Losses of Prussia and Austria; French annexations	[222]
Kingdoms of Saxony and Westfalia; Grand duchy ofFrankfurt	[222]
Germany wiped out of the map	[222]
Losses of Prussia; Danzig; duchy of Warsaw	[222-223]
The German Confederation; princes holding lands withinand without the Confederation; kingdom of Hanover	[223]
Increase of Prussian territory; dismemberment of Saxony	[224]
Lands recovered by Austria; German possessions of Denmarkand the Netherlands; Sweden withdraws fromGermany	[224-225]
Comparison of Prussia and Austria; Hannover	[225]
Kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, Württemberg; other Germanstates; the free cities; Lüttich passes to Belgium	[226-227]
Revival of German national life	[227]
Affairs of Luxemburg	[228-229]
War of Sleswick and Holstein; the duchies ceded toAustria and Prussia	[228]
War of 1866; North German Confederation; exclusion ofAustria; great advance of Prussia	[228-229]
War with France; the new German Empire; recovery ofElsass-Lothringen	[229-230]
Comparison of the old kingdom and the new Empire; nameof Prussia	[230-231]
§ 3. The Kingdom of Italy.
Small geographical importance of the kingdom; changes onthe Alpine frontier	[231-232]
Case of Trieste	[233]
Apulia, Sicily, Venice, no part of the kingdom; their relationto the Eastern Empire	[233-234]
Special history of the house of Savoy	[234]
Extent of the kingdom; Neustria and Austria; Æmilia,Tuscany; Romagna	[234-235]
Lombardy proper; the marches	[235]
Comparison of Germany and Italy; the commonwealths, thetyrants, the Popes; four stages of Italian history	[235-236]
Northern Italy; the Marquesses of Montferrat; the Lombardcities; the Veronese march	[236-238]
Central Italy; Romagna and the march of Ancona; theTuscan commonwealths; Pisa and Genoa; Rome andthe Popes	[238-239]
The tyrannies; Spanish dominion: practical abeyance of theEmpire in Italy; Imperial and Papal fiefs	[239-240]
Palaiologoi at Montferrat; house of Visconti at Milan; theduchy of Milan; its dismemberment; duchy of Parmaand Piacenza	[240-242]
Land power of Venice	[242-243]
Other principalities; duchy of Mantua, of Ferrara andModena; difference in their tenure	[243-244]
Romagna; Bologna; Urbino; advance of the Popes	[244]
The Tuscan cities; Lucca; rivalry of Pisa and Genoa; Siena;Florence	[245]
Duchy of Florence; grand duchy of Tuscany	[246]
§ 4. The Later Geography of Italy.
The kingdom practically forgotten; position of Charles theFifth	[246]
Italy a geographical expression; changes in the Italianstates	[246-247]
Dominion of the two branches of the house of Austria	[247]
Italy mapped into larger states; exceptions at Monaco andSan Marino	[247]
Venice; Milan Spanish and Austrian; its dismembermentin favour of Savoy; end of Montferrat and Mantua	[248-249]
Parma and Piacenza; separation of Modena and Ferrara;Genoa and Lucca; Grand Duchy of Tuscany; advanceof the Popes	[249]
The Norman kingdom of Sicily; Benevento	[250]
The Two Sicilies; their various unions and divisions;their relations to the houses of Austria, Savoy andBourbon	[250-251]
Use of the name Sardinia	[251]
Wars of the French Revolution; the new republics; Treatyof Campo Formio; Piedmont joined to France	[251-253]
Restoration of the Pope and the King of the Two Sicilies	[253]
The French kingdoms; Etruria; Italy	[253]
Various annexations; Rome becomes French; Murat Kingof Naples	[253-254]
Italy under French dominion; revival of the Italian name	[254-255]
Settlement of 1814-1815; the princes restored, but not thecommonwealths	[255]
Austrian kingdom of Lombardy and Venice; Genoa annexedby Piedmont	[255-256]
The smaller states; the Papal states; Kingdom of the TwoSicilies	[256]
Union of Italy comes from Piedmont; earlier movements;war of 1859; Kingdom of Italy: Savoy and Nizzaceded to France	[257-258]
Recovery of Venetia and Rome; parts of the kingdom notrecovered	[258]
Freedom of San Marino	[258]
§ 5. The Kingdom of Burgundy.
Union of Burgundy with Germany; dying out of the kingdom;chiefly swallowed up by France, but representedby Switzerland	[258-259]
Boundaries of the kingdom; fluctuation; Romance tongueprevails in it	[259]
History of the Burgundian Palatinate; Besançon; Montbeliard	[261]
The Lesser Burgundy; partly German	[261]
The Dukes of Zähringen; the ecclesiastical states; the freecities; the free lands; growth of the Old League ofHigh Germany	[262]
Growth of Savoy; Burgundian possessions of its counts	[263]
States between the Palatinate and the Mediterranean; Bresseand Bugey; principalities and free cities	[263]
County of Provence; its connexion with France	[263-264]
Progress of French annexation: 1310-1791: Lyons; theDauphiny: Vienne; Valence; Provence; Avignon andVenaissin	[264-265]
Nizza	[265]
History of Orange	[265-266]
States which have split off from the Imperial kingdoms:Switzerland; Savoy; the duchy of Burgundy by Belgiumand the Netherlands	[266-267]
The Austrian power; its position as a marchland; its unionwith Hungary; its relation to Eastern Europe	[267-268]
§ 6. The Swiss Confederation.
German origin of the Confederation; popular errors; sketchof Swiss history	[268-270]
The Three Lands; the cities: Luzern, Zürich, Bern; theEight Ancient Cantons	[270]
Allies and subjects; dominion of Zürich and Bern; conquestsfrom Austria	[270-271]
Italian conquests; first conquests from Savoy; League ofWallis	[271-272]
The Thirteen Cantons	[272]
League of Graubünden; further Italian and Savoyard conquests	[272-273]
History of Geneva; territory restored to Savoy; division ofGruyères	[273-274]
The Allied States; Neufchâtel; Constanz	[274]
The Confederation independent of the Empire; its positionas a middle state	[274-275]
Wars of the French Revolution; Helvetic Republic; freedomof the subject lands; annexations to France	[275-276]
Act of Mediation; the nineteen cantons	[276]
The present Swiss Confederation	[276]
History of Neufchâtel	[276]
§ 7. The State of Savoy.
Position and growth of Savoy; three divisions of the Savoyardlands; popular confusions	[277-278]
The Savoyard power originally Burgundian; Maurienne;Aosta	[278]
First Italian possessions	[279]
Burgundian advance; lands north of the lake	[280-281]
Relations to Geneva, France, and Bern	[281-282]
Acquisition of Nizza	[282]
Italian advance of Savoy; principally of Achaia, of Piedmont;Saluzzo	[283-284]
Savoy a middle state	[284]
French influence and occupation; decline of Savoy	[285]
Loss of lands north of the lake; further losses to Bern andher allies; recovery of the lands south of the lake;the Savoyard power becomes mainly Italian	[286]
Savoy falls back in Burgundy and advances in Italy; historyof Saluzzo; finally acquired in exchange for Bresse, &c.	[287]
Duchy of Savoy annexed to France; restored; annexed again	[288]
French annexation of Nizza; Aosta the one Burgundianremnant	[288]
Savoyard advance in Italy	[289]
§ 8. The Duchy of Burgundy and the Low Countries.
Position of the Valois dukes as a middle power; result oftheir twofold vassalage	[290]
Schemes of a Burgundian kingdom; their final effects;Belgium and the Netherlands	[290-291]
History of the duchy of Burgundy; its union with Flanders,Artois, and the county of Burgundy; relations to Franceand the Empire	[292-293]
The Netherlands; the counts of Flanders; their Imperial fiefs	[293]
Holland and Friesland	[293]
Brabant; Hainault; union of Holland and Hainault	[294]
Common points in all these states; the great cities; Romanceand Teutonic dialects	[294-295]
South-western states; Liége; Luxemburg; Limburg; duchyof Geldern	[295]
Middle position of these states; French influence; unionunder the Burgundian dukes	[296]
Advance under Philip the Good; Namur, Brabant, andLimburg, Holland and Hainault	[296-297]
The towns on the Somme; Flanders and Artois releasedfrom homage	[297-298]
Philip’s last acquisition of Luxemburg; advance underCharles the Bold and Charles the Fifth; union of theNetherlands	[298]
The Netherlands pass to Spain; war of independence; itsimperfect results	[299]
The Seven United Provinces; their independence of theEmpire; their colonies; lack of a name; use of theword Dutch	[299-300]
The Spanish Netherlands; English possession of Dunkirk;advance of France; the Spanish Netherlands pass toAustria	[301]
Annexation by France; kingdom of Holland; all the Burgundianpossessions French	[302]
Kingdom of the Netherlands; Liége incorporated; relationof Luxemburg to Germany	[303]
Division of the Netherlands and Belgium; separation ofLuxemburg from Germany	[303]
General history and result of the Burgundian power	[303-304]
§ 9. The Dominions of Austria.
Origin of the name Austria; anomalous position of theAustrian power; the so-called ‘Empire’ of Austria	[305-307]
The Eastern Mark; becomes a duchy; division of Carinthia;union of Austria and Styria	[307-308]
County of Görz	[309]
Austria, &c., annexed by Bohemia; great power of Ottokar	[309]
House of Habsburg; their Swabian and Alsatian lands;their loss	[309-311]
King Rudolf; break-up of the power of Ottokar; Albertduke of Austria and Styria	[310]
Relations between Austria and the Empire; division of theAustrian dominions	[311-312]
Acquisition of Carinthia and Tyrol; commendation ofTrieste; loss of Thurgau	[312-313]
Austrian kings and emperors; possessions beyond theEmpire	[313-315]
Union with Bohemia and Hungary	[314-317]
Consequences of the union with Hungary; slow recoveryof the kingdom	[317]
Acquisition of Görz; advance towards Italy; Austriandominion and influence in Italy	[318]
Connexion of Austria and Burgundy; the Austrian Netherlands	[318-319]
Loss of Elsass; of Silesia; acquisition of Poland;Dalmatia	[320]
Position and dominions of Maria Theresa	[320-321]
New use of the name Austria; the Austrian ‘Empire’in 1811	[321-322]
Misuse of the Illyrian name	[322]
Austria in 1814-1815; recovery of Dalmatia; annexationof Ragusa; of Cracow	[322-323]
Separation from Hungary; reconquest; the ‘Austro-HungarianMonarchy;’ Bosnia, Herzegovina, Spizza	[323-324]
CHAPTER IX.
THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.
Origin and growth of France; comparison with Austria	[325]
How far Karolingia split off from the Empire	[326]
France a nation as well as a power	[326-327]
Use of the name of France; its dukes acquire the westernkingdom; extent of their dominion	[327-328]
Two forms of annexation; first, of fiefs of the crown;secondly, of lands beyond the kingdom	[328]
Distinctions among the fiefs; the great vassals; Normandy;Britanny	[328]
The Twelve Peers; different position of the bishops in Germanyand Karolingia	[328-329]
§ 1. Incorporation of the Vassal States.
The duchy of France in 987; the King cut off from the sea	[329-330]
The neighbouring states; position of the Parisian kings	[330]
The kings less powerful than the dukes; advantages of theirkingship; first advances of the kings	[331]
The House of Anjou; gradual union of Normandy, Anjou,Maine, Aquitaine, and Gascony	[331-333]
Acquisition of continental Normandy, Anjou, &c.	[333-334]
The English kings keep Aquitaine and insular Normandy	[334]
Sudden greatness of France	[334]
Fiefs of Aragon in Southern Gaul; counts of Toulouse andBarcelona	[334-335]
Effects of the Albigensian war; French annexations;Roussillon and Barcelona freed from homage	[335]
Languedoc	[335]
Other annexations of Saint Lewis	[335-336]
Annexation of Champagne; temporary possession of Navarre	[336-337]
The Hundred Years’ War; relations between France andAquitaine; momentary possession of Aquitaine byPhilip the Fair	[337]
Peace of Bretigny; Aquitaine and other lands freed fromhomage	[337-338]
Peace of Troyes; momentary union of the French andEnglish crowns	[338]
Final annexation of Aquitaine; beginning of the modernFrench kingdom	[338-339]
Growths of the Dukes of Burgundy; the towns on the Somme;momentary annexation of Artois and the County ofBurgundy	[339-340]
Annexation of the duchy of Burgundy; Flanders and Artoisreleased from homage; analogy with Aquitaine	[340-343]
§ 2. Foreign Annexations of France.
Relations between France and England; Boulogne; Dunkirk	[341-342]
Relations between France and Spain; Roussillon; Navarre;Andorra	[342-343]
Advance at the cost of the Imperial kingdoms, first Burgundy,then Germany	[343]
Effect of the Burgundian conquests of France; relations withSavoy and Switzerland	[344]
History of the Langue d’oc	[345]
French dominion in Italy; slight extent of real annexation	[345-346]
French annexations from Germany; the Three Bishoprics;effect of isolated conquests	[346]
French acquisitions in Elsass; France reaches and passes theRhine; increased isolation	[347-348]
Temporary annexation of Bar; annexation of Roussillon;advance in the Netherlands	[348-349]
Annexation of Franche Comté and Besançon; seizure ofStrassburg; annexation of Orange	[349-350]
Annexation of Lorraine; thorough incorporation of Frenchconquests; effect of geographical continuity	[350-351]
Purchase of Corsica; its effects; birth of Buonaparte	[351-352]
§ 3. The Colonial Dominion of France.
French colonies in North America; Acadia; Canada;Louisiana	[352]
Colonial rivalry of France and England; English conquestof Canada	[353]
French West India Islands	[353]
The French power in India; Bourbon and Mauritius	[353-354]
§ 4. Acquisitions of France during the Revolutionary Wars.
Distinction between the Republican and ‘Imperial’ Conquests	[355-356]
First class of annexations; Avignon, Mülhausen, Montbeliard;Geneva; bishopric of Basel	[355]
Second zone; traditions of Gaul and the Rhine; Netherlands;Savoy, &c.; feelings of Buonaparte towards Switzerland	[355-356]
Character of Buonaparte’s conquests; dependent and incorporatedlands; division of Europe between France andRussia	[356-357]
The French power in 1811	[357-358]
Arrangements of 1814-1815	[358-359]
Later changes; annexation of Savoy, Nizza, and Mentone;loss of Elsass and Lorraine	[359]
Losses among the colonies; independence of Hayti; sale ofLouisiana	[359-360]
Conquest of Algeria; character of African conquests	[360]
CHAPTER X.
THE EASTERN EMPIRE.
Comparison of the Eastern and Western Empires; the Westernfalls to pieces from within; the Eastern is broken topieces from without	[362-363]
Tendencies to separation in the Eastern Empire	[363]
Closer connexion of the East with the elder Empire; retentionof the Roman name; Romania	[363-364]
Importance of the distinction of races in the East	[364]
The original races; Albanians, Greeks, Vlachs	[364]
Slavonic settlers	[364]
Turanian invasions from the North; Bulgarians, Magyars, &c.	[365]
The Saracens	[365]
The Seljuk and Ottoman Turks; comparison of Bulgarians,Magyars, and Ottomans	[365]
The Eastern Empire became nearly conterminous with theGreek nation; reappearance of the other original races	[366]
The Latin Conquest, and the revived Byzantine Empire	[366-367]
States which arose out of the Empire or on its borders;Sicily; Venice; Bulgaria; Hungary; Asiatic powers	[367-368]
Distinction between conquest and settlement	[368]
§ 1. Changes in the Frontier of the Empire.
Power of revival in the Empire	[369]
Western possessions of the Empire; losses in the islands;advance in the mainland	[369]
Loss of Sardinia; gradual loss and temporary partial recoveryof Sicily	[369-370]
Fluctuations of the Imperial power in Italy; the Normans	[370-371]
Loss and recovery of Crete and Cyprus; separation ofCyprus	[371-372]
Summary of the history of the great islands	[372-373]
Relations to the Slavonic powers; three Slavonic groups	[373]
Bulgarian migrations; White Bulgaria; the first Bulgariankingdom south of the Danube	[373-374]
Use of the Bulgarian name	[374]
The slaves of Macedonia, &c.	[375]
Relations between the Empire and the Bulgarian kingdom	[375]
Recovery of Macedonia and Greece; use of the nameHellênes	[375-376]
Servia, Croatia, and Dalmatia	[376]
Greatest extent of the first Bulgarian kingdom underSimeon	[376-377]
First conquest of Bulgaria	[377]
Second Bulgarian kingdom under Samuel; second conquest	[377-378]
Venice and Cherson	[378]
Asiatic conquests; annexation of Armenia	[378-379]
New enemies; Magyars; Turks	[379]
Revolt of Servia; loss of Belgrade	[379]
Advance of the Seljuk Turks; Sultans of Roum; loss ofAntioch	[379-380]
Normans advance; loss of Corfu and Durazzo	[380]
Revival under John and Manuel, Komnênos; recovery of landsin Asia and Europe	[381]
Splitting off of distant possessions; loss of Dalmatia; LatinKingdom of Cyprus	[381]
Third Bulgarian kingdom; the Empire more thoroughlyGreek	[382]
Latin conquest of Constantinople; Act of Partition	[383]
Latin Empire of Romania	[383-384]
Latin kingdom of Thessalonikê	[384-385]
Despotat of Epeiros; Greek Empire of Thessalonikê; theirseparation	[385]
Empire of Trebizond; loss of its western dominion	[386]
The old Empire continued in the Empire of Nikaia; its advancein Europe and Asia; recovery of Constantinople	[386-387]
Loss in Asia and advance in Europe; recovery of Peloponnêsos	[387-388]
Advance in Macedonia and Epeiros	[388]
Losses in Asia; Knights of Saint John; advance of the Turks	[389]
Losses towards Servia and Bulgaria; conquests of StephenDushan	[389-390]
Fragmentary dominion of the Empire	[390]
Advance of the Turks in Europe; loss of Hadrianople; lossof Philadelphia	[390]
Recovery of territory after the fall of Bajazet	[390-391]
Turkish conquest of Constantinople; of Peloponnêsos	[391]
States which grew out of the Empire; Slavonic, Hungarian,and Rouman; Greek; Latin; Turkish	[391-393]
§ 2. The Kingdom of Sicily.
The Norman Power in Italy and Sicily; its relations to theEastern and Western Empires	[393]
Advance of the Normans in Italy; Aversa and Capua;duchy of Apulia; Robert Wiscard in Epeiros	[394-395]
Norman conquest of Sicily	[395]
Roger King of Sicily; his conquests in Italy, Corfu, andAfrica	[395-396]
Eastern dominion of the two Sicilian crowns; kingdom ofMargarito	[396-397]
Acre; Malta	[398]
§ 3. The Crusading States.
Comparison between Sicily and the crusading states	[398]
Jerusalem; Cyprus; Armenia	[399]
Extent of the Kingdom of Jerusalem; other Latin states inSyria; loss and recovery of Jerusalem, final loss; lossof Acre	[399-400]
Kingdom of Cyprus; its relations to Jerusalem and Armenia	[401]
Frank principalities in Greece; possessions of the maritimecommonwealths	[401-402]
§ 4. The Eastern Dominion of Venice and Genoa.
The historic position of Venice springs from her relation tothe Eastern Empire	[402-403]
Connexion of her Greek and Dalmatian rule	[402]
Comparison between Venice and Sicily	[402]
Her share in the Act of Partition compared with her realdominion; her main position Hadriatic	[403-405]
Venetian possessions not assigned by the partition; Crete;Cyprus; Thessalonikê	[404]
Taking of Zara in the fourth crusade	[405]
Relations of the Dalmatian cities to Servia, Croatia, Venice,Hungary, and the Empire	[405-407]
Pagania	[406]
Magyar Kingdom of Croatia; struggles between Venice andHungary	[407]
Independence of Ragusa; Polizza	[407]
History of Corfu	[408]
Venetian posts in Peloponnêsos: history of Euboia; lossof the Ægæan islands	[409]
Advance of Venice and Dalmatia, Peloponnêsos, and theWestern islands	[410]
Venice the champion against the Turk; losses of Venice;fluctuations in the Western Islands	[410-412]
Conquest and loss of Peloponnêsos	[412]
Frontier of Ragusa	[412]
Venetian fiefs; history of the duchy of Naxos	[413]
Possessions of Genoa; Galata; her dominions in the Euxine	[413-414]
Genoese fiefs; Lesbos; Chios; the Maona	[414]
Revolutions of Rhodes; knights of Saint John; their removalto Malta; revolutions of Malta	[414-415]
§ 5. The Principalities of the Greek Mainland.
Greek and Latin states; use of the name Môraia	[415-416]
Lordship and duchy of Athens; the Catalans; the laterdukes; Ottoman conquest; momentary Venetian occupations	[416-417]
Salôna and Bodonitza	[417]
Principality of Achaia; recovery of Peloponnesian lands bythe Empire	[417-418]
Angevin overlordship in Achaia; dismemberment of theprincipality	[418]
Patras under the Pope	[418]
Conquests of Constantine Palaiologos	[418]
Turkish conquest of Peloponnêsos; independence of Maina	[419]
Revolutions of Epeiros; dismemberment of the despotat;recovery of Epeiros by the Empire	[419]
Servian conquests; beginning of the Albanian power; kingsof the house of Thopia	[419-420]
Servian dynasty in southern Epeiros; kingdom of Thessaly;Turkish conquest	[420]
The Buondelmonti in Northern Epeiros; history of thehouse of Tocco; Karlili; effects of their rule	[420-421]
Turkish conquest of Albania; revolt of Scanderbeg; Turkishreconquest	[421]
Empire of Trebizond; its relations to Constantinople	[422]
Turkish conquest of Trebizond; of Perateia or Gothia	[422-423]
§ 6. The Slavonic States.
Effects of the Latin conquest on the Slavonic states	[423]
Comparison of Servia and Bulgaria; extent of Servia; itsrelation to the Empire; conquest by Manuel Komnênos;Servia independent	[423-424]
Relations towards Hungary; shiftings of Rama or Bosnia	[424-425]
Southern advance of Servia; Empire of Stephen Dushan	[425]
Break-up of the Servian power; the later Servian kingdom;conquests and deliverances of Servia	[426]
Kingdom of Bosnia; loss of Jayce; duchy of Saint Saba orHerzegovina; Turkish conquest of Bosnia; of Herzegovina	[426-427]
The Balsa at Skodra; loss of Skodra; beginning of Tzernagoraor Montenegro	[428]
Loss of Zabljak; establishment of Tzetinje	[428]
The Vladikas; the lay princes	[429]
Montenegrin conquests and losses	[428-429]
Greatest extent of the third Bulgarian kingdom; its decline;shiftings of the frontier towards the Empire;Philippopolis	[429-430]
Break-up of the kingdom; principality of Dobrutcha;Turkish conquest	[430-431]
§ 7. The Kingdom of Hungary.
Character and position of the Hungarian kingdom	[431-432]
Great Moravia overthrown by the Magyars; their relationsto the two Empires	[432-433]
The two Chrobatias separated by the Magyars; their geographicalposition	[433-434]
Kingdom of Hungary; its relations to Croatia and Slavonia	[434]
Transsilvania or Siebenbürgen; origin of the name; Germanand other colonies	[435]
Origin of the Roumans; their northern migration	[435-436]
Rouman element in the third Bulgarian kingdom; occupationof the lands beyond the Danube; Great and LittleWallachia; Transsilvania; Moldavia	[436-437]
Conquests of Lewis the Great; Dalmatia; occupation ofHalicz and Vladimir; pledging of Zips	[437]
Turkish invasion; disputes for Dalmatia	[438]
Reign of Matthias Corvinus; extension of Hungary eastand west	[438]
Loss of Belgrade; the Austrian kings; Turkish conquestof Hungary; fragment kept by the Austrian kings;their tribute to the Turk; the Rouman lands	[438-439]
Recovery of Hungary from the Turk; peace of Carlowitz;of Passarowitz; losses at the peace of Belgrade	[439-440]
Galicia and Lodomeria; Bukovina; Dalmatia	[440-441]
Annexation of Spizza; administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina;renewed vassalage to the Turk	[440-441]
§ 8. The Ottoman Power.
The Ottoman Turks; special character of their invasion;contrast with other Turanian invasions; comparisonwith the Saracens in Spain	[442-443]
Comparison of the Ottoman dominions with the EasternEmpire	[443]
Effects of the Mongolian invasion; origin of the Ottomans;their position in Europe and Asia; break-up and reunionof their dominion; its permanence	[443-444]
Advance of the Ottomans in Asia; in Europe; dominion ofBajazet	[444-445]
Victory of Timour; reunion of the Ottoman power underMahomet the First	[445-446]
Mahomet the Second; taking of Constantinople; extent ofhis dominion; taking of Otranto	[446]
Conquest of Syria and Egypt	[447]
Reign of Suleiman; his conquests; Hungary; Rhodes;Naxos; his African overlordship	[447]
Conquest of Cyprus; decline of the Ottoman power	[447-448]
Greatest extent of the Ottoman power; Crete and Podolia	[448]
Ottoman loss of Hungary; loss and recovery of Peloponnêsos;Bosnia and Herzegovina; union of inland and maritimeIllyria	[448]
English vassalage in Cyprus	[449]
Relations between Russia and the Turk; Azof; Treaty ofKainardji; Crim; Jedisan; Bessarabia; shiftings ofthe Moldavian frontier	[449-450]
§ 9. The Liberated States.
Lands liberated from the Turk; comparison of Hungarywith Greece, Servia, &c.	[450]
The Servian people the first to revolt	[450]
The Ionian Islands the first liberated state; the SeptinsularRepublic; overlordship of the Turk	[451]
The Venetian outposts given to the Turk; surrender ofParga; last Ottoman encroachment	[451]
The Ionian Islands under British protection	[451]
The Greek War of Independence; extent of the Greek nation;extent of the liberated lands	[451-452]
Kingdom of Greece; addition of the Ionian Islands; promisedaddition in Thessaly and Epeiros	[452]
First deliverance and reconquest of Servia	[453]
Second deliverance; Servia a tributary principality	[452-453]
Withdrawal of Turkish garrisons	[453]
Independence and enlargement of Servia	[453]
Fourfold division of the Servian nation	[453]
The Rouman principalities; union of Wallachia and Moldavia	[453]
Independence and new frontier of Roumania	[453-454]
Deliverance of part of Bulgaria; the Bulgaria of SanStefano	[454]
Treaty of Berlin; division of Bulgaria into free, half-free,and enslaved	[454-455]
Principality of Bulgaria; Eastern Roumelia	[454]
General survey	[455-460]
Note on M. Sathas	[460-461]
CHAPTER XI.
THE BALTIC LANDS.
Lands beyond the two Empires; the British islands; Scandinavia;Spain	[462-463]
Quasi-imperial position of certain powers	[462-463]
Comparison of Scandinavia and Spain; of Aragon andSweden	[463-464]
Eastern and Western aspect of Scandinavia	[464]
General view of the Baltic lands; the Northern Slavoniclands, their relations to Germany and Hungary	[465]
Characteristics of Poland and Russia	[465]
The primitive nations, Aryan and non-Aryan	[455-466]
Central position of the North-Slavonic lands; barbarianneighbours of Russia and Scandinavia; Russian conquestand colonization by land	[467]
Relation of the Baltic lands to the two Empires; Norwayalways independent; relations of Sweden and Denmarkto the Western Empire	[467]
The Western Empire and the West-Slavonic lands; relationsof Poland to the Western Empire	[467]
Relations of Russia to the Eastern Church and Empire;Imperial style of Russia	[468]
§ 1. The Scandinavian Lands after the Separation of the Empires.
The Baltic still mainly held by the earlier races; formationof the Scandinavian kingdom	[468-499]
Formation of the Danish kingdom; its extent; frontier ofthe Eider; the Danish march	[469]
Use of the name Northmen; formation of the kingdom ofNorway	[469-470]
The Swedes and Gauts; the Swedish kingdom	[470]
Its fluctuations towards Norway and Denmark; its growthtowards the north	[470]
Western conquests and settlements of the Danes and Northmen	[471]
Settlements in Britain and Gaul	[471]
Settlements in Orkney, Man, Iceland, Ireland, &c.	[471]
Expeditions to the East; Danish occupation of Samland;Jomsburg	[471]
Swedish conquest of Curland; Scandinavians in Russia	[472]
§ 2. The Lands East and South of the Baltic at the Separationof the Empires.
Slaves between Elbe and Dnieper; their lack of sea-board	[472-473]
Kingdom of Samo; Great Moravia	[473]
Four Slavonic groups	[473-474]
Polabic group; Sorabi, Leuticii, Obotrites; their relations tothe Empire	[474-475]
Early conquest of the Sorabi; marks of Meissen and Lusatia;long resistance of the Leuticians; takings of Branibor;mark of Brandenburg	[475-476]
Mark of the Billungs; kingdom of Sclavinia; house of Mecklenburg;relations to Denmark	[476]
Bohemia and Moravia; their relations to Poland, Hungary,and Germany	[477]
The Polish kingdom; its relations to Germany; rivalry ofPoland and Russia	[478]
Lechs or Poles; their various tribes	[478]
Beginning of the Polish state; its conversion and relationsto the Empire	[479]
Conquests of Boleslaf; union of the Northern Chrobatia withPoland	[479]
The Polish state survives, though divided	[479-480]
Relations of Russia to the Eastern Church and Empire;Russia created by the Scandinavian settlement; originof the name	[480]
First centre at Novgorod; Russian advance; union of theEastern Slaves	[481]
Second centre at Kief; the princes become Slavonic; attackson Constantinople and Cherson	[481-482]
Conquests on the Caspian; isolation of Russia; Russian landswest of Dnieper	[482]
Russian principalities; supremacy of Kief	[482]
Supremacy of the northern Vladimir; commonwealths ofNovgorod and Pskof; various principalities; kingdomof Halicz or Galicia	[483]
The Cuman power; Mongol invasion; Russia tributary tothe Mongols; Russia represented by Novgorod	[483-484]
The earlier races; Finns in Livland and Esthland	[484]
The Lettic nations; Lithuania; Prussia	[484]
Survey in the twelfth century	[485]
§ 3. German Dominion on the Baltic.
Time of Teutonic conquest on the Baltic; comparison ofGerman and Scandinavian influence; German influencethe stronger	[485-486]
Beginning of Swedish conquest in Finland; German conquestin Livland; its effect on Lithuania and Russia; theMilitary orders	[487]
Polish gains and losses	[487]
Character of the Hansa	[487]
Temporary Swedish possession of Scania; union of Calmar;division and reunion; abiding union of Denmark andNorway	[487-488]
Union of Iceland with Norway; loss of the Scandinaviansettlements in the British isles	[488]
Swedish advance in Finland	[488]
Temporary greatness of Denmark, settlement of Esthland;conquest of Sclavinia; Danish advance in Germany;Holstein, &c.; long retention of Rügen	[488-490]
Duchy of South-Jutland or Sleswick; its relations to Denmarkand Holstein; royal and ducal lines; conquestof Ditmarschen	[490-491]
Effect of the Danish advance on the Slavonic lands; westernlosses of Poland; Pomerania; Silesia	[491-492]
Kingdom of Bohemia; dominion of Ottocar; the Luxemburgkings	[492-493]
Annexation of Silesia and Lusatia; territory lost to MatthiasCorvinus	[493]
Union with Austria; later losses	[493]
German corporations; the Hansa; its nature; not strictlya territorial power	[494-495]
The Military Orders; Sword-brothers and Teutonicknights; their connexion with the Empire; effects oftheir rule	[495]
The Sword-brothers in Livland and Esthland; extent oftheir dominion	[495-496]
The Teutonic order in Prussia; union with the Sword-brothers;acquisition of Culm, Pomerelia, Samogitia,Gotland; the New Mark	[496]
Losses of the order; cession of Pomerelia and part of Prussiato Poland; the remainder a Polish fief	[496-497]
Advance of Christianity; Lithuania the last heathen power;its great advance	[497-498]
Consolidation of Poland; conquests of Casimir the Great;shiftings of Red Russia	[498]
Union of Poland and Lithuania; recovery of the Polishduchies; Lithuanian advance; closer union	[498-499]
Revival of Russia; power of Moscow; name of Muscovy	[499-500]
Break-up of the Mongol power; the Khanats of Crim, Kazan,Siberia, Astrakhan	[501]
Deliverance of Russia; Crim dependent on the Turk	[501]
Advance of Moscow; annexation of Novgorod, &c.; Russiaunited and independent	[501]
Survey at the end of the fifteenth century	[502]
§ 4. The Growth of Russia and Sweden.
Growth of Russia; creation of Prussia; temporary greatnessof Sweden	[503]
Separation of the Prussian and Livonian knights; duchy ofPrussia; union of Prussia and Brandenburg; Prussiaindependent of Poland	[503-504]
Fall of the Livonian knights; partition of their dominions;duchy of Curland; shares of Denmark, Sweden, Poland,and Russia	[504]
Greatest Baltic extent of Poland and Lithuania; union ofLublin	[505]
Advance of Russia; its order; the Euxine reached last	[505-506]
Recovery of Russian lands from Lithuania; Polish conquestof Russia; second Russian advance; Peace of Andraszovo;recovery of Kief	[506]
Russian superiority over the Cossacks; Podolia ceded to theTurk	[506-507]
Comparison of Swedish and Russian advance	[507]
Advance under and after Gustavus Adolphus; conquestsfrom Russia and Poland; Ingermanland; Livland	[507-508]
Conquests from Denmark and Norway; Dago and Oesel;Scania, &c.; restoration of Trondhjem	[508-509]
Fiefs of Sweden within the Empire; Pomerania; Bremen andVerden	[509]
Fluctuations in the duchies; Danish possession of Oldenburg	[509]
Sweden after the peace of Oliva	[510]
Eastern advance of Russia; Kasan and Astrakhan; Siberia	[511]
§ 5. The Decline of Sweden and Poland.
Decline of Sweden; extinction of Poland; kingdom ofPrussia; empire of Russia	[511-512]
Russia on the Baltic; conquest of Livland, &c.; foundationof Saint Petersburg; advance in Finland	[512]
German losses of Sweden: Bremen, Verden, part ofPomerania	[513]
Union of the Gottorp lands and Denmark	[513]
First partition of Poland; recovery of lost lands by Russia;geographical union of Prussia and Brandenburg; Polishand Russian lands acquired by Austria	[513-514]
Second partition: Russian and Prussian shares	[514]
Third partition: extinction of Poland and Lithuania	[514-515]
No strictly Polish territory acquired by Russia; the oldPoland passes to Prussia, Chrobatia to Austria	[515]
Russian advance on the Euxine, Azof; Crim; Jedisan	[515-516]
Temporary Russian advance on the Caspian; superiorityover Georgia	[516]
Survey at the end of the eighteenth century	[517]
§ 6. The Modern Geography of the Baltic Lands.
Effects of the fall of the Empire; incorporation of the Germanlands of Sweden and Denmark	[518]
Russian conquest of Finland	[518]
Union of Sweden and Norway; loss of Swedish Pomerania	[518-519]
Denmark enters the German Confederation for Holstein andLauenburg; loss of these duchies and of Sleswick	[519]
Polish losses of Prussia; commonwealth of Danzig; Duchyof Warsaw	[519-520]
Polish territory recovered by Prussia; Russian kingdom ofPoland; commonwealth of Cracow; its annexation byAustria	[520]
Fluctuation on the Moldavian border	[521]
Russian advance in the Caucasus and on the Caspian	[521]
Advance in Turkestan and Eastern Asia; extent and characterof the Russian dominion	[522-523]
Russian America	[523]
Final survey of the Baltic lands	[523-524]
CHAPTER XII.
THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND ITS COLONIES.
Analogy between Spain and Scandinavia; slight relation ofSpain with the Empire; break between its earlier andlater history	[525]
Comparison of Spain and the Eastern Empire; the Spanishnation formed by the Saracen wars; analogy betweenSpain and Russia	[525-526]
Extent of West-Gothic and Saracen dominions; two centresof deliverance, native and Frankish	[526-527]
History of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal; use of the phrase‘Spain and Portugal’	[527-528]
Navarre	[528]
§ 1. The Foundation of the Spanish Kingdoms.
Beginning of the kingdom of Leon	[529]
The Ommiad emirate; the Spanish March; its divisions	[529]
Navarre under Sancho the Great	[529-530]
Break-up of the kingdom of Navarre, and of the Ommiadcaliphate; small Mussulman powers	[530]
Invasion of the Almoravides; use of the name Moors	[530]
New kingdoms: Castile, Aragon, and Sobrarbe; union ofAragon and Sobrarbe	[530]
Shiftings of Castile, Leon, and Gallicia; final union; CastilianEmpire	[531]
Decline of Navarre; growth of Aragon; union of Aragonand Barcelona; end of French superiority	[531]
County and kingdom of Portugal	[532]
Advance of Castile; taking of Toledo; checked by theAlmoravides	[532]
Advance of Aragon; taking of Zaragoza	[532]
Advance of Portugal; taking of Lisbon	[533]
Second advance of Castile; invasion of the Almohades;their decline	[533]
Advance of Aragon and Portugal	[533]
Final advance of Castile; kingdom of Granada; Gibraltar	[534]
Geographical position of the Spanish kingdoms	[534-535]
Title of ‘King of Spain;’ the lesser kingdoms	[535-536]
§ 2. Growth and Partition of the Great Spanish Monarchy.
Little geographical change in the peninsula; territoriesbeyond the peninsula; the great Spanish Monarchy	[536]
Conquest of Granada; end of Mussulman rule	[536-537]
Union of Castile and Aragon; loss, recovery, and final loss ofRoussillon; annexation and separation of Portugal	[537-538]
Gibraltar and Minorca	[537]
Advance of Aragon beyond the peninsula; union with theSicilies and Sardinia	[538]
Extension of Castile dominion; the Burgundian inheritance;duchy of Milan	[539]
Extent of the Spanish Monarchy; loss of the United Netherlands;lands lost to France	[539]
Partition of the Spanish Monarchy; later relations with theSicilies; duchy of Parma	[539-540]
§ 3. The Colonial Dominion of Spain and Portugal.
Character of the outlying dominion of Portugal	[540]
African conquests of Portugal; kingdom of Algarve beyondthe Sea; Ceuta, Tangier	[541]
Advance in Africa and the islands; Cape of Good Hope;dominion in India and Arabia	[541-542]
Settlement and history of Brazil; the one American monarchy	[542]
Division of the Indies between Spain and Portugal; Africanand insular dominion of Spain	[542-543]
American dominions of Spain; revolutions of the Spanishcolonies; two Empires of Mexico	[543-544]
The Spanish West Indies	[544]
CHAPTER XIII.
THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.
Isolation and independence of Britain; late Roman conquestand early loss; Britain another world and Empire	[545]
Shiftings of the Celtic and Teutonic kingdoms; little geographicalchange in later times	[546]
English settlements beyond sea; new English nations	[547]
§ 1. The Kingdom of Scotland.
Greatness of Scotland due to its English elements; two Englishkingdoms in Britain	[548]
Use of the Scottish name	[549]
Analogy with Switzerland	[549]
The three elements in the later Scotland; English, British,Irish; Lothian, Strathclyde, Scotland	[549]
The Picts; their union with the Scots; Scottish Strathclyde;Galloway	[550]
Scandinavian settlements; Caithness and Sutherland	[550]
English supremacy; taking of Edinburgh; grants of Cumberlandand Lothian	[550-551]
Difference of tenure gradually forgotten	[551]
Effects of the grant of Lothian; shiftings of Cumberland,Carlisle, and Northumberland	[551-552]
Boundary of England and Scotland; relations between thekingdoms	[552]
Struggle with the Northmen; recovery of Caithness, Galloway,and the Sudereys	[553]
History of Man; of Orkney	[553]
§ 2. The Kingdom of England.
Changes of boundary toward Wales; conquests of Harold	[553]
Norman conquest of North Wales	[554]
Princes of North Wales; English conquest	[554]
The principality of Wales; full incorporation withEngland	[554-555]
The English shires; two classes of shires; ancient principalities;shires mapped out in the tenth century	[555]
The new shires; Cumberland, Westmoreland, Lancashire,Rutland	[555-556]
§ 3. Ireland.
Ireland the first Scotland; its provinces	[556]
Settlements of the Ostmen; increasing connexion with England;the English conquest; fluctuations of the Pale	[556-557]
Lordship and kingdom of Ireland; its relations to Englandand Great Britain	[557]
§ 4. Outlying European Possessions of England.
The Norman Islands; Aquitaine, Calais, &c.	[558]
Outposts and islands	[558]
Greek possessions; the Ionian Islands; Cyprus	[558-559]
§ 5. The American Colonies of England.
The United States of America	[559]
First English settlements; Virginia; the New EnglandStates; Maryland; Carolina	[559-561]
Settlements of the United Provinces and Sweden; NewNetherlands; New Sweden; New York	[561]
The Jerseys; Pennsylvania; Delaware; Georgia	[561-562]
The thirteen Colonies; their independence	[562]
Nova Scotia; Canada; Louisiana; Florida	[562-563]
A new English nation formed; lack of a name; use of thename America	[563-564]
Second English nation in North America; the Canadianconfederation	[564]
The West India Islands, &c.	[565]
§ 6. Other Colonies and Possessions of England.
The Australian colonies	[565-566]
The South-African colonies	[566]
Europe extended by colonization; contrast with barbaricdominion; Empire of India	[567]
Summary	[568-569]
Index	[571]

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