The foundation of this quarrel was laid during the war with Russia. That crafty and active government sought to create a diversion against England by causing Persia to make the occasion available for advancing upon Herat, and pushing her designs upon Affghanistan. The intrigues of Russia developed themselves too slowly for her purpose, and 1856 arrived before the war broke out. During the year the temper and spirit of the Persian court became intensely irritable towards, the English ambassador and his suite. A circumstance arose which brought this out painfully. On the 15th of June, 1854, Mr. Thomson, the English minister, wrote to Lord Clarendon, then minister for foreign affairs, informing him that he had chosen one Meerza Hashem Khan as the Persian secretary to the British mission. This person was courtly, learned, and in every way suitable to the office assigned to him. Lord Clarendon confirmed the appointment. The Persian court immediately persecuted the favourite of the English mission. The Hon. C. A. Murray succeeded Mr. Thomson, and he also favoured Meerza Hashem. The Persian court continued its persecution, and finally seized and imprisoned the khan’s wife. Mr. Murray demanded satisfaction for this outrage upon the staff of the British mission, and the release of the lady. His demands were treated with disdain, and Mr. Murray felt bound to maintain the dignity of the government he represented by striking his flag on the 20th of November, 1855. The Persian prime-minister put a report into circulation that both Mr. Murray and his predecessor had intrigues with the khan’s wife, and therefore employed him in the embassy. The Persian premier at last made the allegation to Mr. Murray himself, in a despatch. On the 5th of December, after having endured many insults, he left Teheran.
In July, 1856, Lord Clarendon caused the ultimatum of his government to be delivered to the Persian charge d’affaires at Constantinople. It was to the following effect:—The sadr azim (prime-minister) to write in the shah’s name a letter to Mr. Murray, expressing his regret at having uttered and given currency to the offensive imputation upon the honour of her majesty’s minister, requesting to withdraw his own letter of the 19th of November, and the two letters of the minister for foreign affairs of the 26th of November. A copy of this apology to be communicated officially to each of the foreign missions at Teheran, and the substance of it to be made public in that capital. The original letter to be conveyed to Mr. Murray, at Bagdad, by the hands of some high Persian officer, and to be accompanied by an invitation to Mr. Murray, in the shah’s name, to return with the mission to Teheran, on his majesty’s assurance that he shall be received with all the honours and consideration due to the representative of the British government. Mr. Murray, on approaching the capital, to be received by persons of high rank deputed to escort him to his residence. Immediately on his arrival, the sadr azim to go in state to the British mission and renew friendly relations with Mr. Murray. At noon on the following day, the British flag to be hoisted under a salute of 21 guns, and the sadr azim to visit the mission immediately afterwards, which visit Mr. Murray will return. Should Herat be occupied by the shah’s troops, his majesty to engage to withdraw them without delay. The British mission to defer to his majesty’s wish, if renewed, respecting Meerza Hashem, by not insisting on his appointment at Shiraz; the Meerza’s wife, however, to be restored to him.
The ultimatum failed to secure redress. A series of fresh outrages was offered at the embassy upon such servants of the British government as remained there. Orders were sent to Consul Stevens to quit Persia, and take the means usual in such cases to secure the liberty and property of British subjects.
On the 1st of November, the governor-general of India declared war against Persia. Three proclamations were issued by his excellency, which, when they arrived at Constantinople, caused the Persian plenipotentiary to withdraw from all further negotiations, and to treat his former agreements as null and void. Major-general Outram, K.C.B., had returned to England from Oude, and while at home was in consultation with the British government concerning the Persian expedition. He was appointed to command it, and arrived in Bombay for that purpose.
On the arrival of General Outram, active operations commenced. The British landed in Bushire, and defeated the Persians. The place was garrisoned by a portion of the troops, while the main army marched into the interior, driving the Persians with ease before them; and afterwards an expedition was made to Mohammerah, a considerable distance up the Persian Gulf. This was attended with complete success. By the end of March all these conquests were effected. They were followed by an expedition to Akwaz, upon which place the defeated Persians had retired from Mohammerah. The squadron proceeded up the Gulf with great judgment and rapidity, and the enterprise was crowned by the accomplishment of the object proposed, the Persians being obliged to retreat far inland. The English remained masters of the Persian Gulf and its shores throughout the year. Meanwhile, negotiations went on at Paris between the British minister there and the Persian ambassador. The shah ultimately consented to receive the English ambassador at Teheran with all the honours insisted upon in the English ultimatum, to redress the grievances, and satisfy the complaints of the embassy, and to engage to renounce all claims upon Herat. The treaty involved a clause that Bushire was to be occupied by the British until all the concessions made to the English government were practically carried out. In virtue of this arrangement General Havelock remained at Bushire, with a garrison, until May, 1857, when he proceeded thence to perform in India the glorious exploits which terminated his illustrious career. General Outram and the main body of the expeditionary army sailed for India in May, 1856.
WAR WITH CHINA.
The year 1856 was fruitful in events in Asia interesting and important to Great Britain. Among these was the breaking out of another war with China. The origin of the war may be thus briefly stated. A small vessel, called a lorcha, was the property of a British subject, resident at Hong-Kong. It was boarded, while carrying the British flag, by the Chinese authorities, who alleged they were in search of a pirate among the crew. The whole crew were arrested, chained, and carried away prisoners. This was in contravention of the existing treaty with China. The English consul demanded that the captured persons should be returned to the lorcha, and that their investigation should be made according to the treaty. Governor Yeh not only refused to do this, but did so in terms insolent, and almost menacing. The consul at Canton reported the case to the governor of Hong-Kong, Sir John Bowring. The reclamations of that functionary were treated as disdainfully as those of the consul, and it became necessary, as a last resort, to appeal to arms. The outrage upon the lorcha was committed on the 8th of October, 1856. On the 22nd of October, Rear-admiral Sir Michael Seymour, on board the Coromandel, accompanied by a squadron of gun-boats, captured a number of forts by which the entrance to Canton was defended. On the 28th he took possession of a fort known by the name of the Dutch Folly, situated on an island opposite Canton. Commissioner Yeh seemed now to be alarmed for the safety of the city, and offered to surrender ten out of twelve of the men taken out of the lorcha. This the British authorities declined. He then sent the twelve, but demanded that two of them, whom he alleged were guilty of piracy, should be returned, to be dealt with according to the laws of China. Consul Parks had, however, demanded at first that the men should be as publicly sent back to the lorcha as they had been taken away. The twelve men were accordingly brought back by the Chinese authorities again to Governor Yeh. That strange person refused to receive them any more, probably considering that they had brought sufficient trouble and danger on him already. Sir John Bowring then demanded, that as Canton was included in the five ports opened by the treaty of 29th of August, 1842, such facilities for commerce as existed at the other four ports should be opened to British residents at Canton. The English had waived this privilege so far as Canton was concerned (although reserving their right), in order to conciliate the prejudices of a province supposed to be more hostile than any other in China to foreigners. To the demand of Sir J. Bowring, Yeh returned no answer. Sir M. Seymour accordingly opened fire upon some large government buildings on the 27th. Yeh’s own residence was amongst the buildings thus attacked. A body of troops, drawn up on a rising ground, was shelled by the British, and driven from the position. Yeh, as high commissioner of his imperial majesty, offered, by proclamation, a reward of thirty dollars for the head of every Englishman. On the 29th, a breach being made in the walls, seamen and marines landed, blew in the city gate, penetrated the interior of the city, and captured the governor’s house. Admiral Seymour, more gallant than wise, proposed a conference with the commissioner, who declined it. On the 3rd of November, Canton was therefore again attacked. On the 5th a fleet of war-junks was destroyed, and the French Folly fort captured. Sir Michael Seymour was infected by the old British absurdity in dealing with the Chinese, that of negotiating, when prompt and sustained action to compel them to seek negotiation was the only sound policy. Sir Michael carried on a correspondence with the chief mandarin concerning the surrender of the Bogue forts, and their restoration, unimpaired, under certain contingencies. The mandarin regarded the correspondence useful so as to gain time, but he would make no concessions. On the 12th of November the forts were attacked, and on the 13th captured with ease, although defended by 400 guns. On the same day the Ammughoy forts on the side opposite to the Bogue entrance were attacked and captured, with very little resistance, although mounted by 210 guns. On the 14th of December the foreign factories at Canton were fired by the Chinese, and nearly all destroyed. Admiral Seymour could effect nothing during the month of December, his force being inadequate. While he awaited reinforcements the year terminated.