Athletics and Games of the Ancient Greeks

by Edward M. Plummer

In the preparation for these different kinds of foot-races everything was done in the way of training that would tend to make the body as light as possible and increase its rapidity, although the different cities of Greece varied to some extent as regards the question of diet, rubbing and baths.

In practising for the foot-race the contestant, having divested himself of every shred of clothing and anointed his body with oil, was made to exert himself as much as possible. The exertion was often increased by making the run in deep sand instead of on firm ground; the foot having a less firm support, the runner was obliged to work harder and more quickly. In this way these exercises gave to the body not only great power of endurance, but also increased speed, and as a result the δολιχοδρόμοι possessed strong and well-developed legs. The shoulders and upper part of the body, on the other hand, owing to insufficient exercise were small and narrow. On that account Sokrates did not favor the races because they did not produce a harmonious development of the body. The skilled runner naturally strove to preserve an erect carriage while running, and to conform to all established rules regarding the contest. In this connection it may be interesting to mention the strange ideas entertained among the Greeks regarding the influence of the spleen over the powers of the body. This little organ, situated behind the stomach on the left side of the abdomen, and exercising some function which still remains unknown, would in their opinion if diseased prove a great hindrance to a contestant in the race. In order, therefore, to prevent such a catastrophe they resorted to extraordinary means, namely, the use of certain plants which they believed would dissolve or eat away the spleen; or even to surgical operations, such as cutting or burning it out. On the other hand, they believed that a diseased spleen was greatly benefited by exercise in running. Laomedon of Orchomenos is quoted as furnishing an example of this kind.

The attitude of the runners we learn from vases. Those who were contending in the short race or dash swung their arms backward and forward alternately. This is beautifully shown by a painting on a Panathenæan vase in the possession of Koller. It represents four athletes running, hardly touching the ground with one foot, while the other is raised and moved forward in order to cover the greatest possible distance with one step. The hands are wide open; the arms are moved about freely and appear to act as the wings of the body, and their motion is in harmony with that of the lower limbs. Another vase, discovered in the ancient tombs of Volci, also shows a similar method of running. The athletes are moving rapidly, and using their arms as wings. On the other hand, those who were running a long distance clenched their fists and held their arms close to their sides, as do our modern runners. A peculiar custom prevailed during the games. It is said the contestants kept up a loud shouting in order to retain their courage, while at the same time the admiring spectators cheered wildly as some favorite or friend neared the goal. As the Greeks did not possess the modern mechanical means of communication, they had to rely mostly upon messengers; hence the great necessity for expert runners. To this fact is due to a considerable degree the development of agonistic and running contests in Greece. It is said that after the battle of Platæa all the sacred fires which had been profaned by the Persians were extinguished, and that Ἐνχίδας, a Platæan, covered in one day the distance of a thousand stadia from Platæa to Delphi and back again, and brought his fellow-citizens the pure fire from the altar of Apollo. As a result of this terrible strain he sank to the ground and died. The Cretans were especially noted in the δόλιχος. Sotades and Ergoteles were among the most famous. The Arcadian Dromeos was another celebrated runner, having been like the former twelve times victorious in the δόλιχος. Ladas, the famous Spartan runner, was also victorious in the δόλιχος, but according to Pausanias died at the goal on completing a race.

Comparison of the speed of Hellenic athletes with that of modern runners is exceedingly difficult, because the Hellenes had no means of measuring minutes of time; they did not say of an athlete that he ran the δίαυλος in such a time, but that he won (i. e., surpassed his competitors) in a certain Olympic celebration.

Probably the next event was the pentathlon. This competition was introduced into the festival at about the 18th Olympiad. As the etymology of the word signifies, the pentathlon consisted of five distinct competitions, enumerated in a well-known pentameter ascribed to Simonides: leaping (ἅλμα), running (ποδωκείην), diskos-throwing (δίσκον), spear-throwing (ἄκοντα), wrestling (πάλην). That the poet arranged the events in this order cannot be taken as positive proof that this was the real order, as it is hard to see how these words could be arranged otherwise in a pentameter. It is probable, however, that wrestling was the final contest. There is some uncertainty as to what constituted a victory in the pentathlon, but it is evident that the purpose of this competition was to develop what we call “all-round athletes,” and the assertion that the victor must have won three out of the five contests cannot be far from the truth.

In such a combination of exercises it would certainly be good athletic policy to make leaping the first contest. It may be questioned whether an athlete could leap so well after having engaged in the more violent exercises, whereas leaping itself, instead of disqualifying for the other exercises, would on the contrary rouse the animal spirits without bringing on exhaustion, and thereby put the athletes at once in good condition. For the leap requires not only vigor and elasticity, but also courage and determination.

The beneficent results of this exercise were recognized at a very early period by the Hellenes, although in the heroic world the leap was not considered so important as the other modes of contest. In the games of Achilles the leap is not mentioned. In the Odyssey, however, the Phæacians, a light-hearted people, more fond of amusement than of war, are said to be skilled in leaping. It is in historic times, however, that leaping, as an important event in the pentathlon of the public games, acquires its technique, and receives the careful attention of athletes.

What may be called the pure leap, that is the standing leap without accessory aids, was not practised at Olympia. The leaper held in his hands weights resembling our dumb-bells, and known as ἁλτῆρες. To determine the dynamic advantage of these weights is not easy, but it is certain that with them the exercise required more skill, and accordingly more practice, that it called into play more muscles, and that it was more attractive to athletes as a mode of competition.

While little information can be obtained from classic writers concerning the ἁλτῆρες, much can be learned from archæological specimens. Pausanias describes them as having the form of a semi-oval, or inaccurately-rounded ring that could be grasped by the fingers as a shield was grasped. This description corresponds with a drawing of the ἁλτῆρες on a vase in Hamilton’s second collection. Ἁλτῆρες of another shape, however, resembling very closely the modern dumb-bells, are seen on many other vases and gems. These had both ends rounded, and were narrow in the middle in order that they might be easily held. In Hamilton’s first collection are vases giving representations of these ἁλτῆρες. In the Museo Borbonico may be seen on a patera a drawing in which the ἁλτῆρες have still another form: when the hand has grasped the handle of these, beyond the hand, on one side only, a club-shaped part protrudes. The ἁλτῆρες were usually made of lead.