Turkey, the Great Powers, and the Bagdad Railway: A study in imperialism

by Edward Mead Earle

[52] Allen Westcott, “The Struggle for the Mediterranean,” in Our World, February, 1923, pp. 11–17.

[53] Cf., supra, pp. 63–65.

[54] Cf. W. E. Weyl, American World Policies (New York, 1917), Chapter V; A. Demangeon, America and the Race for World Dominion (Garden City, 1921), a translation of Le Déclin de l’Europe (Paris, 1920).

[55] Supra, pp. 40–42.

---

INDEX

• Abdul Hamid, Sultan, [5], [23], [198];
• problems of, [9];
• interest in railway construction, [20], [30];
• deposition of, [97].
• Adaban Island, [283].
• Adalia, [267], [285], [302], [324].
• Adana, [22], [72]. (See also Mersina-Adana Railway.)
• Adrianople, [29].
• Afiun Karahissar, [34], [53], [324].
• Agadir crisis, [170], [253].
• Agriculture in Turkey. (See Turkey, agricultural conditions.)
• Aidin, [324]. (See also Smyrna-Aidin Railway.)
• Alashehr, [34].
• Aleppo, [2], [22], [62], [71], [73], [281], [299].
• Alexandretta, [19], [62], [73], [110], [112], [151].
• Allenby, Field Marshal Sir E. H. H., [298]-299.
• Alliance Israélite Universelle, [133].
• Amanus Mountains, [22], [72], [94], [234], [277], [289];
• Bagdad Railway tunnels through, [113], [119], [289].
• Amara, [286].
• America. (See United States of America.)
• American Federated Chambers of Commerce for the Near East, [344].
• Anatolia, [280], [302], [305];
• geography of, [10];
• natural resources of, [13]-14;
• railways of, [29]-30.
• (See also Anatolian Railway, Smyrna-Cassaba Railway, Smyrna-Aidin Railway, Black Sea Railways, etc.)
• Anatolian Railway, [34], [53], [61], [63], [224], [248], [339];
• concession of 1888, [32];
• concession of 1893, [33];
• agreement with Smyrna-Cassaba Railway, [59]-60;
• board of directors, [85];
• irrigation enterprises, [98], [117];
• economic achievements of, [230]-232;
• concessions of 1914, [248]-249, [272].
• Andrew, Sir William, [176]-177.
• Anglo-French Entente. (See Entente Cordiale.)
• Anglo-French rivalry in the Near East, [318]-329.
• Anglo-German Agreement of June 15, 1914, [261]-265.
• Anglo-German rivalry, [138], [179]-180, [203].
• Anglo-Japanese Alliance, [204].
• Anglo-Persian Oil Company, [259], [261], [283], [286].
• Anglo-Russian Agreement (1907), [204].
• Anglo-Turkish Agreements (1913), [254]-258, [263]-264.
• Angora, [31], [32], [33], [34], [305], [339].
• Angora Government. (See Grand National Assembly.)
• Angora Treaty (October 20, 1921), [324]-325, [333], [352].
• Arabs, [9]-10, [15], [87], [196], [207], [282]-284, [294], [297], [299], [302], [305], [320].
• Ardahan, [316].
• Arghana, [246], [340];
• copper mines of, [326], [334], [343].
• Armenia, [2], [9], [44];
• republic of, [302], [305];
• proposed American mandate, [348].
• Asia Minor. (See Anatolia.)
• Atlas Line, [107].
• Auguste Victoria, Kaiserin, [132].
• Austria-Hungary, policies in Near East, [11];
• railways in Turkey, [58];
• trade with Turkey, [105]-106;
• annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, [218];
• relations with Germany in Near East, [129]-130.
• (See also Drang nach Osten.)
• Backshish, [94].
• Bagdad, [2], [31], [32], [62], [71], [73]-74, [261], [281], [286], [296], [336].
• Bagdad Railway, [3], [7], [21], [34];
• factor in Great War, [4], [172], [278], [288]-289, [291], [299]-300;
• strategic importance to Turkey, [22], [152]-153;
• mileage, [90];
• construction, [94]-95, [113]-114, [289];
• political importance to Germany, [126]-131;
• opponents and friends of enterprise in Germany, [137]-142;
• economic success, [233]-234;
• disposition of by Allies, [301];
• Angora Treaty, [325]-326;
• status in 1922, [326];
• purchase by British bankers, [334].
• (See also Germany, Great Britain, France, Russia.)
• Bagdad Railway Company, incorporation of, [70], [92];
• concession of 1903, [22], [70]-75, [77]-84, [219];
• attempt to internationalize (1903), [92]-93;
• board of directors, [93], [115], [256], [263];
• preliminary concession of 1899, [61]-65, [68];
• financing concession of 1903, [77], [91], [93]-94, [116];
• concession of 1908, [96]-97;
• convention of March, 1911, [111]-112, [228]-229, [252];
• Franco-German agreement of 1914, [170], [247]-252;
• contracts with Lord Inchcape, [259]-260, [264];
• agreement with Smyrna-Aidin Railway Company, [260], [264];
• proposed liquidation, [301].
• Bagtché tunnel, [289].
• Bahrein Island, [283].
• Balfour, A. J. (Earl Balfour), [93], [180]-185, [202].
• Balfour of Burleigh, Lord, [117].
• Balkan States, [11], [152];
• nationalism of, [7].
• Balkan Wars, [246]-275.
• Ballin, Albert, [141], [281].
• Banditry, [9], [12].
• Bank für Handel und Industrie, [101], [116].
• Bank für orientalische Eisenbahnen, [32], [334].
• Banque d’Orient, [99].
• Barrow, General Sir Edmond, [282].
• Basra, [2], [19], [62], [74], [255], [263], [282], [284], [336].
• Bassermann, Herr, [120], [129], [170], [256].
• Beersheba, [298].
• Beirut, [30], [62], [72], [299].
• Belgium. Railway concessions of Belgians in Turkey, [30].
• Berger, Léon, [91], [115].
• Bergmann, Dr. Carl, [260].
• Berthelot, Philippe, [320].
• Bethmann-Hollweg, von, [249].
• Beyens, Baron, [249].
• Bieberstein, Baron Marschall von, [43], [55], [170], [218], [254].
• Bismarck, [40]-42, [54]-55, [349].
• Bitlis, [340].
• Black Sea Basin Agreement, [65], [149].
• Black Sea Railways, [245]-246, [248]-249.
• Boer War, [61], [179], [203].
• Boli, [246].
• Bowles, Gibson, [190], [210].
• Bozanti, [325].
• Breslau (Cruiser), [278], [282].
• Briand, Aristide, [329].
• Brusa, [14].
• Bulgaria, [288], [290].
• Bulgurlu, [94], [96].
• Bülow, Prince von, [48], [135].
• Cadman, Sir John, [321].
• Caillard, Sir Vincent, [31], [32].
• Caliphate, [27], [64], [278]-279, [296].
• Cambon, Jules, [268].
• Cambon, Paul, [225].
• Capitulations, [10]-11, [82], [153]-154, [276], [303]-306, [316], [332].
• Carden, Admiral, [282].
• Cassel, Sir Ernest, [209], [220]-221, [225].
• Chamberlain, Austen, [287].
• Chamberlain, Joseph, [67], [178]-179, [185].
• Chéradame, André, [155], [215].
• Chesney, Francis R., [176].
• Chester, Rear Admiral Colby M., [15], [333].
• Chester concessions, [334], [339], [353];
• compared with Bagdad Railway concessions, [340]-343;
• political significance of, [350].
• Chrome, [13], [337].
• Churchill, Winston, [282].
• Cilicia, [305], [325]-326, [331];
• French mandate for, [302], [325].
• (See also Mersina-Adana Railway.)
• Cilician Gates of the Taurus, [72], [113], [149], [325].
• Cilician-Syrian Railway Company, [326].
• Clémenceau, Georges, [310], [320], [351].
• Coal, Heraclea mines, [14], [324].
• Colonization, [84], [123]-125.
• Combes, Émile, [167].
• Commercial Revolution, [1], [3]-4, [73]. (See also Trade routes.)
• Committee of Union and Progress, [217], [219].
• Constans, M., [60], [155].
• Constantinople, [2], [10], [23], [281], [302].
• Cotton, [16], [50]-51, [294], [297], [326].
• Cox, Sir Percy, [283]-284, [286].
• Cranborne, Lord, [69].
• Crawford, Sir Richard, [221].
• Crédit Lyonnais, [158].
• Crewe, Lord, [282].
• Crowe, Sir Eyre, [259].
• Ctesiphon, [287].
• Curzon, Lord, [23], [113], [192], [197]-198, [199], [212]-213, [283], [327].
• Customs duties of Ottoman Empire, [95], [111], [180], [226]-228, [256], [262].
• Damascus, [12], [21], [30], [62], [72], [299].
• Damascus-Homs-Aleppo Railway, [34], [246].
• D’Arcy Exploration Company, [259], [261].
• Dardanelles, [245], [280], [282], [285], [288]-289.
• Dawkins, Sir Clinton, [186].
• Deir, province of, [294].
• Deir es Zor, [248].
• Delamain, General, [283]-284.
• Delcassé, Théophile, [66], [68], [155]-157, [168]-169.
• De Lesseps, Ferdinand, [177].
• Denby, Charles, [345].
• Deschanel, Paul, [159], [172].
• Dette Publique. (See Ottoman Public Debt Administration.)
• Deutsche Bank, [32]-33, [36], [99], [140], [141], [184]-185, [261];
• negotiations of 1899 with Imperial Ottoman Bank, [59]-60, [155];
• influential position in German industry, [100]-101;
• loans to Young Turks, [225];
• negotiations of 1913–1914 with Imperial Ottoman Bank, [170], [247]-252.
• (See also Anatolian Railway, Bagdad Railway Company, etc.)
• Deutsche Levante Linie, [36], [107].
• Deutsche Mittelmeer Levante Linie, [108].
• Deutsche Orientbank, [99].
• Deutsche Orient Mission, [132].
• Deutsche Palästina Bank, [37], [99], [158].
• Deutsch-türkische Vereinigung, [281].
• Deutsches Vorderasienkomitee, [281].
• Deutschtum, das, [135].
• Diarbekr, [12], [14], [31], [73], [246], [340].
• Disraeli, Benjamin (Earl of Beaconsfield), [3], [178], [215].
• Djavid Bey, [95], [219]-220, [224]-229, [235]-236, [247], [275], [278], [331].
• Djemal Pasha, [278], [285], [298].
• Dodecanese Islands, [267].
• Downing Street, [185], [201], [210], [254].
• Drang nach Osten, [51], [123], [129]-130, [139], [141]-142, [315].
• Dresdner Bank, [101], [116].
• Eastern Bank, The, [117].
• Egypt, [3], [7], [21], [195], [201], [278], [319].
• El Helif, [96].
• Ellenborough, Lord, [102], [197].
• Entente Cordiale, [188], [203]-204, [319].
• Enver Pasha, [275], [278], [285], [297].
• Eregli, [72].
• Erzerum, [12], [246], [303], [339].
• Eski Shehr, [14], [33].
• Euphrates River, [2], [74], [81].
• (See also Lynch Brothers.)
• Euphrates Valley Railway Company, [176].
• Euphrates & Tigris Steam Navigation Company, Ltd. (See Lynch Brothers.)
• Falkenhayn, General von, [298]-299.
• Fashoda incident, [61], [203].
• Fouad Bey, Dr. I., [343].
• France, [7], [23], [276], [293];
• French railways in Turkey, [30], [34], [53], [59], [165]-166, [245]-246, [248]-249.
• (See also Smyrna-Cassaba Railway, Damascus-Homs-Aleppo Railway, etc.);
• trade with Turkey, [104]-106;
• imperialism, [122], [294], [300], [330];
• attitude toward Bagdad Railway, [66], [94], [153]-169;
• investments in Turkey, [154]-155;
• spheres of interest in Near East, [293]-294, [302];
• mandate for Syria and Cilicia, [302], [320], [325];
• rivalry with Great Britain in Near East, [318]-329;
• treaty of March 9, 1921, with Turkish Nationalists, [323]-324;
• Angora Treaty, [324]-326;
• policy at Lausanne Conferences, [329]-335;
• attitude toward Chester concessions, [333]-334, [345].
• Francis I, [154].
• Franco-German convention of 1914, [247]-252, [272].
• Franco-Russian Alliance, [153], [158]-159, [168].
• Franco-Turkish Treaty of March, 1921, [323]-324.
• Franco-Turkish Treaty of October, 1921. (See Angora Treaty.)
• Franklin-Bouillon, Henri, [324], [329].
• Gallipoli, [8], [280], [285].
• Gaza, [288], [299].
• Genoa Conference, [329].
• George V, of Great Britain, [258].
• Germany, railways in Turkey. (See Anatolian Railway, Bagdad Railway, Deutsche Bank);
• trade with Turkey, [101]-106, [109], [118];
• banks in the Near East, [98]-101;
• steamship lines in the Near East, [36], [107]-110;
• military missions to Turkey, [38], [269], [288], [297]-298;
• Near Eastern policies, [38]-45, [64]-65, [120]-131, [261]-265, [276]-279, [287]-292, [297]-300;
• schools and missions, [131]-136, [145];
• imperialism, [39]-40, [44]-52, [56], [114], [125]-135, [277], [280]-281, [292];
• anti-imperialism, [137]-138;
• rivalries with Great Britain, [138], [179]-180, [203];
• alliance with Turkey, [271];
• propaganda, [281]-282;
• military campaigns in Turkey, [285]-290, [296]-299;
• destruction of interests in Near East, [301]-302, [314]-315.
• Goeben (cruiser), [278], [282].
• Golden Horn, [29], [338].
• Goltz, Field Marshal von der, [21], [38]-39, [153], [223], [282], [288], [289], [296].
• Gouraud, General, [323].
• Grand National Assembly, [305], [316], [323], [325], [331], [333]-334, [343].
• Great Britain, Near Eastern policies, [11], [23], [66]-67, [68]-69, [111], [195]-208, [225]-228, [252]-265, [282]-287, [297], [322];
• attitude toward Bagdad Railway, [66]-67, [69], [182]-201, [205]-209, [261]-265;
• imperialism, [122], [195]-197, [200], [277], [282], [294], [300];
• trade with Turkey, [105]-106;
• economic enterprises in Near East, [30], [53], [60], [117], [189]-192, [220], [261]
• (see also Lynch Brothers, Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Inchcape, etc.);
• spheres of interest in Ottoman Empire, [294], [302];
• acquisition by Bagdad Railway, [334]-335;
• military campaigns in Near East, [283]-285, [286]-287, [296]-297, [298]-299.
• (See also headings under “Anglo,” Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, Suez Canal, etc.)
• Great War, [234], [275]-276;
• rôle of Bagdad Railway in, [285]-290, [296]-299.
• Greece, [11], [302], [303], [306].
• Greco-Turkish War (1920–1922), [306], [329].
• Grey, Sir Edward (Viscount Grey), [111], [198], [225]-227, [228], [243], [255], [261]-262, [282]-283.
• Grothe, Dr. Hugo, [281], [307].
• Guaranty Trust Company of New York, [338].
• Gwinner, Dr. Arthur von, [114]-115, [121], [125], [129], [141], [184], [186], [221], [236], [247], [281].
• Haidar Pasha, [298], [325].
• Haidar Pasha-Ismid Railway, [30], [31], [80].
• Haidar Pasha Port Company, [86], [112].
• Haifa, [246].
• Hakki Bey, Ismail, [219].
• Hakki Pasha, [254]-255, [261].
• Haldane, Lord, [198], [254].
• Hama, [72].
• Hamburg-American Line, [108]-109, [141].
• Hanotaux, Gabriel, [241]-242.
• Hatzfeld, Count, [38].
• Hedjaz, [284], [299], [302].
• Hedjaz Railway, [21], [27], [246], [302].
• Helfferich, Dr. Karl, [52], [97], [141], [225], [236], [247], [249].
• Heraclea, [246];
• coal mines of, [14], [324].
• Hilfsverein der deutschen Juden, [136].
• Hirsch, Baron, [32].
• Hittites, [12].
• Holy Land, [6], [299].
• (See also Palestine.)
• Holy War, [278]-279, [281].
• Homs, [72], [246].
• Huguenin, M., [63].
• Immigration, [234].
• Imperial Ottoman Bank, [59], [93], [117], [245], [246]-248.
• Imperialism, [3], [5]-8, [11]-12, [45]-52, [114], [235]-236, [267], [279]-280, [292]-296, [306], [316]-318, [331], [337]-338, [350].
• (See also Imperialism as sub-topic under France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Russia, United States.)
• Inchcape, Lord, [109], [192], [256], [258]-260.
• India, [7], [126], [178], [195], [196], [282], [283].
• Industrial Revolution, [13], [45]-46.
• Industry in Turkey. (See Turkey, industrial backwardness.)
• Interallied Commission on Ports, Waterways, and Railways, [300].
• Interallied Financial Commission, [303].
• International Court of Justice, [350].
• Irak, [16], [108], [277], [326].
• (See also Mesopotamia.)
• Irrigation, [16]-17, [98], [117], [205], [221], [256], [263], [297].
• Ismet Pasha, [333]-334.
• Ismid, [14], [305].
• Italy, trade with Turkey, [105]-107;
• imperialism, [11], [173]-174, [218], [295], [300], [330];
• Tripolitan War, [246];
• economic interests in Turkey, [266]-267;
• spheres of interest in Near East as defined by secret treaties, [285], [295], [302], [305];
• treaty of 1921 with Turkish Nationalists, [324].
• Jäckh, Ernst, [204]-205, [279], [281], [307].
• Jaffa, [30], [72], [246], [299].
• Jagow, Gottlieb von, [254], [268].
• Jastrow, Morris, [142].
• Jaurès, Jean, [242].
• Jericho, [299].
• Jerusalem, [30], [72], [299].
• Jerusalems-Verein, [132], [135].
• Jezirit-ibn-Omar, [327].
• Joffre, Marshal, [268]-269.
• Johnston, Sir Harry H., [205]-206, [215], [254].
• Kaisarieh, [272], [340].
• Kapnist, Count Vladimir I., [58].
• Kapp, Wolfgang, [141].
• Karaman, [72].
• Kars, [316].
• Kaulla, Dr. Alfred von, [31].
• Kemal Bey, Yussuf, [325].
• Kemal Pasha, Mustapha, [298], [303], [323], [347].
• Khanikin, [58], [75], [240].
• Kharput, [73], [246], [340].
• Kiderlen-Waechter, von, [239].
• Kilometric guarantees, [31], [33], [77]-78, [85], [90], [245].
• Kipling, Rudyard, [137].
• Kitchener, Lord, [283].
• Klapka, M. de, [247], [249].
• Konia, [14], [33], [62], [72], [281].
• Koweit, [4], [180], [197]-198, [255];
• Sheik of, [181], [223], [255], [284].
• Kühlmann, Herr von, [255], [259], [261].
• Kurds, [9].
• Kurna, [284].
• Kut-el-Amara, [226], [261], [286], [289]-291.
• Land of the Two Rivers. (See Mesopotamia.)
• Langénieux, Cardinal, [162]-163.
• Lansdowne, Lord, [69], [93], [122], [184], [197].
• Lausanne Conferences (1922–1923), [306], [329]-333, [334]-343.
• League of Nations, [327], [350].
• Ledochowski, Cardinal M. H., [144].
• Lee, Lord, [329].
• Lichnowsky, Prince, [139]-140, [146], [255], [262].
• Lloyd George, David, [199], [242]-243, [310], [320], [351].
• Ludwig Loewe & Company, [37], [101].
• Lynch Brothers, [74], [81], [82], [111], [190]-191, [210]-211, [256], [260].
• McMahon, Sir Arthur H., [284].
• Macedonian Railways Company, [113].
• Mackensen, Dr., [34].
• Mackensen, Field Marshal von, [297].
• Mahmoud Pasha, [60].
• Mandates, [302], [320], [325], [327], [348].
• Manissa, [30].
• Maude, General Sir Stanley, [296], [297].
• Meade, Colonel, [198].
• Mecca, [21], [62].
• Medina, [21].
• Mendeli, [261].
• Mersina, [19], [72], [110].
• Mersina-Adana Railway, [30], [109], [321].
• Mesopotamia, [32], [35], [51], [124], [140], [147], [152], [176], [180]-181, [226], [234], [256], [262]-266, [277], [280], [282], [284], [288], [327];
• trade routes, [1]-2;
• natural resources, [14]-17;
• Bagdad Railway in, [73]-75;
• German steamship service, [108]-109;
• military campaigns, [286]-287, [289]-290, [296]-299;
• British sphere of interest, [294]-295;
• British mandate for, [302], [320];
• British Civil Administration, [297], [326].
• (See also Persian Gulf, Shatt-el-Arab, Koweit, Irak.)
• Metternich, [295].
• Middle East, [3], [178], [196].
• Militarism, [268]-271, [275]-276.
• Milyoukov, Professor, [315].
• Minerals in Turkey, [13]-15, [50]-51, [280], [340].
• (See also Chrome, Oil, Turkey, mineral resources.)
• Missions and missionaries, effect on Turkey, [6];
• in support of the Bagdad Railway, [131]-133, [141];
• German, [132]-133;
• French, [133], [135], [160]-165;
• Italian, [133], [173]-174;
• American, [336].
• Mittel-Europa, [277], [290], [292].
• Mocha, [10].
• Moltke, General H. K. B., [145], [176].
• Morgen, Major, [34].
• Morley, Viscount, [207]-208.
• Mosul, [2], [12], [62], [73], [261], [305], [321], [327], [332].
• Mount Stephen, Lord, [184], [209].
• Mudania armistice, [306].
• Mudros armistice, [299].
• Mutius, Herr von, [109].
• National Bank of Turkey, [220], [261].
• National Pact, [304]-305, [316].
• Nationalism, [267]-268;
• Balkan, [7];
• German, [136]-137, [163];
• French, [136], [163];
• Italian, [173]-174;
• English, [211];
• Turkish, [222], [275], [278], [303]-304, [314].
• (See also Young Turks, Pan-Turanianism, Kemal Pasha, etc.)
• Naumann, Friederich, [127].
• Near East. (See Ottoman Empire, Turkey, Middle East.)
• Neuflize, Baron de, [247].
• Neutral Zone of the Straits, [329].
• Nicholas, Grand Duke, [290], [293].
• Nicholas II, Tsar of Russia, [239].
• Nineveh, [73], [137].
• Nisibin, [73], [246], [325], [327].
• Nixon, General J. E., [286].
• Northcote, Sir Stafford, [178].
• North German Lloyd Steamship Company, [107].
• O’Connor, Sir Nicholas, [60].
• Oil, [14]-15, [50]-51, [147], [261], [282]-283, [286], [294], [321], [332], [338], [340].
• Open Door, [83], [125], [263], [326], [339].
• Oriental Railways, [18], [29], [32], [113].
• Osmanie, [111].
• Ottoman-American Development Company. (See Chester concessions.)
• Ottoman Civil List, [15].
• Ottoman Empire, economic, strategic, and religious importance, [4]-17;
• military system, [26];
• partition of, [285], [293]-295, [302]-303;
• abolition of Sultanate, [306].
• (See also Turkey, Abdul Hamid, Ottoman Public Debt Administration, etc.)
• Ottoman General Staff, [22].
• Ottoman Ministry of Public Works, [31], [32], [81], [246].
• Ottoman Ports Company, [260].
• (See also Inchcape.)
• Ottoman Public Debt Administration, [11], [31], [32], [81], [303], [305];
• railway policies, [17]-20, [29].
• Ottoman River Navigation Company, [258].
• (See also Inchcape.)
• Oulu Kishla, [340].
• Palästinaverein, [133].
• Palestine, [280], [294], [298], [319]-320;
• British mandate, [302].
• Palmerston, Viscount, [176]-177.
• Panderma, [221], [245].
• Pan-Germanism, [35], [103], [281];
• support of Bagdad Railway, [136]-137.
• Pan-Islamism, [64], [87], [222], [276].
• Pan-Slavism, [164].
• Pan-Turanianism, [222], [237].
• Parker, Alwyn, [261].
• Peninsular & Oriental Steam Navigation Company, [192], [256].
• Persia, [73], [122], [196], [239]-240, [255].
• Persian Gulf, [2], [74], [255], [263], [280], [282], [322];
• British strategic interests, [196]-199, [211]-212.
• (See also Koweit, Shatt-el-Arab, Anglo-Persian Oil Company.)
• Petroleum. (See Oil.)
• Pichon, Stephen, [224], [243].
• Pobêdonostsev, [58].
• Poincaré, Raymond, [333].
• Ponsot, M., [249].
• Potsdam Agreement, [199], [239]-244.
• Pressel, Wilhelm von, [18], [26], [30].
• Propaganda, [281]-282.
• Quai d’Orsay, [169], [245], [247].
• Radek, Karl, [130].
• Railways, military value of, [22], [176].
• (See Abdul Hamid, Anatolia, Cilicia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Anatolian Railway, Bagdad Railway, etc.)
• Ras el Ain, [114].
• Rathmore, Lord, [260].
• Rechnitzer, Ernest, [60], [85]-86, [87].
• Reparation Commission, [301]-302.
• Repington, Colonel, [283].
• Revelstoke, Lord, [184], [209].
• Reventlow, Count zu, [140]-141.
• Rhodes, Cecil, [67], [178].
• Richelieu, [295].
• Rohrbach, Dr. Paul, [15], [16], [27], [120], [125], [127], [128], [136], [213], [218], [287].
• Roosevelt, Theodore, [243].
• Rosenberg, Baron von, [249].
• Rouvier, M., [157], [167], [169].
• Royal Dutch Petroleum Company, [261].
• Russia, Near Eastern policies, [7], [11], [23], [42], [147]-153, [239]-244,
• 315–318;
• attitude toward Bagdad Railway, [65]-66, [147]-153;
• Potsdam Agreement with Germany, [199], [239]-244;
• entente with Great Britain and France, [153], [158]-159, [168], [204];
• imperialism, [7], [9], [15], [23], [61], [65], [127], [151]-153, [166]-168, [177], [183], [212], [240]-241, [269], [276], [278]-279;
• spheres of interest defined by secret treaties, [285], [293];
• Soviet Republic and the Near East, [315]-318.
• Russo-Japanese War, [3], [153].
• Russo-Turkish War of 1877, [150], [152].
• Sadijeh, [73], [75], [114], [240].
• Samarra, [73], [297].
• Samsun, [31], [246], [339].
• Sanders, Field Marshal Liman von, [269], [278], [299].
• San Remo Conference, [320].
• San Remo Oil Agreement, [321].
• Sarolea, Charles, [131].
• Sazonov, [239].
• Sazonov-Paléologue Treaty, [293].
• Scheidemann, Philip, [130], [137], [214].
• Schoen, Baron von, [93], [101]-102, [120], [125], [130]-131.
• Seljuk Turks, [72].
• Sericulture. (See Silk.)
• Shatt-el-Arab, [2], [74], [81], [264].
• Sherif of Mecca, [87], [284].
• Siemens, Carl von, [141].
• Siemens, George von, [31], [41], [68], [121].
• Silk, [20], [158], [294].
• Simplon-Orient Express, [300].
• Sinai Peninsula, [4], [21], [27], [285].
• Sivas, [31], [246], [303], [339], [340].
• Slav Peril, [242].
• Smith, Sir Henry Babington, [188], [209], [227].
• Smyrna, [4], [19], [110], [302], [303], [306], [324].
• Smyrna-Aidin Railway, [30], [84], [189], [260], [264].
• Smyrna-Cassaba Railway, [30], [34], [53], [59]-60, [245].
• Société d’exploitation des chemins de fer de Cilicie-Nord Syrie, [326].
• Société du chemin de fer de Damas-Hama et prolongements, [34], [246].
• Société du chemin de fer ottomane d’Anatolie. (See Anatolian Railway.)
• Société française de Heraclée, [14].
• Société impériale ottomane du chemin de fer de Bagdad. (See Bagdad Railway Company.)
• Société pour la construction et l’exploitation du réseau de la Mer Noire. (See Black Sea Railways.)
• Société pour enterprises électriques en Orient, [99].
• Soma, [30], [245].
• Soma-Panderma Railway, [221], [245].
• Speyer, Edward B. von, [141].
• Spheres of influence, [277], [294], [295], [302].
• St. Jean de Maurienne Agreement, [295], [302], [311].
• Stahlwerksverband, [103].
• Standard Oil Company, [15], [232].
• Stemrich, Herr, [34].
• Sublime Porte, [43], [55], [149], [247], [252], [261].
• Subsidies, railroad, [75]-80.
• Suez Canal, [2], [3], [4], [21], [27]-28, [177], [178], [192], [195], [204], [259], [277], [282], [283], [285], [290].
• Suleiman the Magnificent, [7].
• Suleimanieh, [340].
• Sykes, Sir Mark, [251], [272]-273, [295].
• Sykes-Picot Treaty, [293]-294, [310].
• Syria, [2], [11], [280], [288], [302], [320], [323], [328];
• railways of, [30], [34], [245]-246, [248]-249, [326];
• military campaigns, [299];
• French sphere of interest, [293]-294;
• French mandate, [302], [320], [325].
• Tardieu, André, [169]-170, [203], [214], [267]-268.
• Taurus Mountains, [72], [94], [113], [149], [288].
• Tchoban Bey, [327].
• Teheran, [75], [240].
• Tekrit, [73], [294].
• Thrace, [305], [306], [324].
• Tigris River, [2], [74], [81].
• (See also Lynch Brothers.)
• Tireboli, [239].
• Townshend, General Sir Charles, [286], [287], [289], [290].
• Trade routes, [2], [71].
• Trans-Caspian Railway, [2], [150].
• Trans-Caucasian Railways, [2], [150].
• Trans-Persian Railway, [2], [147].
• Trans-Siberian Railway, [2], [3], [4], [147], [150].
• Treaty of Berlin (1878), [149], [162]-163.
• Treaty of Bucharest (1913), [246].
• Treaty of Lausanne (1912), [267].
• Treaty of London (1915), [285], [302].
• Treaty of Sèvres (1920), [301], [305], [306].
• Treaty of Versailles (1919), [301].
• Trebizond, [246], [339].
• Tripartite Agreement (Great Britain, France, Italy, 1920), [301].
• Triple Alliance, [107], [271].
• Triple Entente, [275].
• Tripoli-in-Syria, [72], [246].
• Tripolitan War, [246].
• Turco-Italian Treaty (March, 1921), [324].
• Turkey, agricultural conditions, [5], [12], [13], [15]-16, [18], [20], [230]-232;
• industrial backwardness, [12]-13;
• general economic conditions, [12]-17, [233]-234;
• finances (see Ottoman Public Debt Administration);
• mineral resources, [13]-15, [50]-51, [280], [340];
• foreign trade, [36], [104]-107, [339];
• alliance with Germany and Austria, [271];
• entry into Great War, [275]-278;
• as spoils of war, [280]-281, [285], [292]-295, [301]-302;
• military campaigns of 1920–1922, [305]-306;
• a republic, [306].
• (See also Ottoman Empire, Anatolia, Cilicia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Grand National Assembly, Angora Treaty, Lausanne Conferences, etc.)
• Turkish Petroleum Company, [261], [321], [353].
• Union and Progress, Committee of, [217], [219].
• United States of America, railroad subsidies, [79];
• economic changes since the Great War, [337]-338;
• American interests in the Near East, [336], [337]-338
• (see also Chester concessions);
• naval activity in Near East, [346]-347;
• outlook for American imperialism, [337]-338, [347]-350.
• Van, [246], [340].
• Wangenheim, Baron von, [43], [270], [278], [282].
• Washington Conference (1921), [329].
• Weygand, General, [333].
• Wilhelmstrasse, [121], [133], [142], [201], [236], [247], [254].
• Willcocks, Sir William, [16], [205], [214]-215, [220]-221.
• William II, German Emperor, [142], [198], [298], [349];
• imperialistic policies of, [39]-40, [44]-52, [349];
• visits to Turkey, [41], [43]-44, [55], [134]-135;
• and Bagdad Railway concession of 1899, [68].
• Wilson, Woodrow, [291], [336].
• Witte, Count, [58], [68], [149]-150.
• Württembergische Vereinsbank, [31].
• Young Turks, [5], [13], [17], [110]-111, [217]-218;
• hostility to Germans, [220]-224;
• financial difficulties, [224]-229;
• efforts to conciliate France and Great Britain, [244], [252]-261;
• hostility to imperialism, [267].
• Young Turk Revolution, [27], [96].
• Youmourtalik, [340]-341.
• Zander, Dr. Kurt, [68].
• Zihni Pasha, [68].
• Zinoviev, M., [65], [149].
• Zubeir, [75].