Human nature.
469. In the analysis of human nature Paul again started from the Stoic basis. In the first place he recognised the fundamental unity of the man as a compacted whole[72]; subject to this monism, he recognised three parts, the spirit, the animal life, and the flesh[73]. Of these only the two extremes, the spirit and the flesh, are usually mentioned; but these do not strictly correspond to the traditional distinction of soul and body. The soul (ψυχή, anima) is that which man has in common with the animals; the spirit (πνεῦμα, spiritus) is that which he has in common with God. Where therefore only two parts are mentioned, the soul and the flesh must be considered both to be included under the name ‘flesh.’ Soul and flesh are peculiar to the individual man; spirit is the common possession of the Deity and of all men[74]. Thus God and man share in the spiritual nature, and become partners in an aspect of the universe from which animals, plants, and stones are definitely excluded[75]. The ‘spirit’ of St Paul therefore corresponds closely to the ‘principate’ of the Stoics, and though the Christian apostle does not lay the same emphasis on its intellectual aspect, he fully recognises that the spiritual life is true wisdom, and its perversion folly and darkness[76].
Resurrection and immortality.
470. From this analysis of human nature Paul approaches the central doctrine of the Christian community, that of the resurrection of its Founder. To the simple-minded fraternity at Jerusalem the resurrection of Jesus was a marvel, an interference with the orderly course of divine providence, a proof of the truth of the gospel message. Jesus has returned to his disciples in the body as he lived; he has again departed, but before this generation has passed away he will return to stay with them and establish his kingdom. To St Paul all this is different. He accepts implicitly the fact of the resurrection, but as typical, not as abnormal. As Christ has risen, so will his followers rise. But Christ lives in the spirit; by their intrinsic nature neither the flesh-body nor the soul-body can become immortal[77]. And in the spirit Christ’s followers are joined with him, and will be more fully joined when they are rid of the burden of the flesh[78]. This continued existence is no mere fancy; it is real, objective, and (in philosophical language) bodily. Though by the creation all men have some share in the divine spirit, yet immortality (at any rate in the full sense) is the privilege of the faithful only; it is won, not inherited. Paul does not venture to suggest that human individuality and personality are retained in the life beyond. He draws no picture of the reunion of preacher and disciple, of husband and wife, or of mother and child. It is enough for him to believe that he will be reunited with the glorified Christ, and be in some sense a member of the heavenly community[79].
The seed theory.
471. On its philosophical side the Paulist view of immortality is closely akin to the Stoic, and is exposed to the same charge of logical inconsistency. If the whole man is one, how can we cut off the flesh-body and the soul-body from this unity, and yet maintain that the spirit-body is not also destroyed? To meet this difficulty St Paul, in one of his grandest outbursts of conviction, propounds the doctrine of ‘seeds,’ closely connected with the Stoic doctrine of seed-powers’ (σπερματικοὶ λόγοι)[80], and with the general principles of biological science as now understood. This seed is the true reality in man; it may throw off both soul and flesh, and assume to itself a new body, as a tree from which the branches are lopped off will throw out new branches. Thus, and not otherwise, was Christ raised; and as Christ was raised, so will his followers be raised[81]. Man is not in any final sense a unit; as the race is continued by the breaking off of the seed from the individual, so is the spirit-life won by the abandonment of soul and flesh.
Life and death.
472. At this point we are brought face to face with a very old paradox, that life is death, and death is life. What is commonly called life is that of the soul and the flesh, which the animals share and which may mean the atrophy of man’s higher part; on the other hand death has no power over the life of the spirit, which is therefore called ‘eternal life’ or ‘life of the ages.’ To enter upon this ‘eternal life’ is the very kernel of the gospel message[82]; in the language of philosophy it is the bridge between physics and ethics. Although the steps by which it is reached can be most clearly traced in the Pauline epistles, yet the general conclusion was accepted by the whole Christian church. From this point of view Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, by virtue of their communion with God, are still alive[83]; he who holds his life dear, loses it; and he who makes it of no account keeps it to the life of the ages[84]; he who listens to the teaching of Jesus and believes in the Father who sent him, has passed over out of death into life[85].
Moral principles.
473. From the doctrine of ‘eternal life’ follow the first principles of morals: eternal life is the moral end (τέλος) or summum bonum[86]. The spirit is everything, the act nothing; good lies in the intention, not in the performance[87]; we are saved by faith, not by works[88]. Therefore all tabus fall away; ‘to the pure everything is pure[89]’; ‘in its own nature no food is impure; but if people regard any food as impure, to them it is[90]’; ‘our ungraceful parts come to have a more abundant grace[91]’; ‘everything that God has created is good[92].’ And because God and all men share in one spirit, all men are fellow-citizens in the cosmopolis[93]. To this St Paul sacrifices all personal advantages of which otherwise he might be justly proud, his Hebrew descent, his free citizenship in the Roman empire, and even his standing in sex above an inferior part of the creation[94]. The spiritual condition is expressed in terms of certain emotional attitudes which correspond to the three Stoic ‘constancies[95]’; the details vary, but love, joy, peace, gentleness and sweet reasonableness[96] are frequently recurring terms, whilst faith, hope and love are recommended in one passage of the highest eloquence, love (ἀγάπη, caritas) being given the highest place of all[97].