The benevolence of a god, however, does not imply that he acts as a moral judge. A friendly god is not generally supposed to bestow his favours gratuitously; it is hardly probable, then, that he should meddle with matters of social morality out of sheer kindliness and of his own accord. But by an invocation he may be induced to reward virtue and punish vice. We have often noticed how closely the retributive activity of gods is connected with the blessings and curses of men. In order to give efficacy to their good or evil wishes men appeal to some god, or simply bring in his name when they pronounce a blessing or a curse; and if this is regularly done in connection with some particular kind of conduct, the idea may grow up that the god rewards or punishes it even independently of any human invocation. Moreover, powerful curses, as those uttered by parents or strangers, may be personified as supernatural beings, like the Greek Erinyes; or the magic energy inherent in a blessing or a curse may become an attribute of the chief god, owing to the tendency of such a god to attract supernatural forces which are in harmony with his general nature.[15] So also, the notion of a persecuting ghost may be changed into the notion of an avenging god.[16] Various departments of social morality have thus come to be placed under the supervision of gods: the rights of life[17] and property,[18] charity[19] and hospitality,[20] the submissiveness of children,[21] truthspeaking and fidelity to a given promise.[22] That gods are so frequently looked upon as guardians of truth and good faith is, as we have seen, mainly a result of the common practice of confirming a statement or promise by an oath; and where the oath is an essential element in the judicial proceedings, as was the case in the archaic State,[23] the consequence is that the guardianship of gods is extended to the whole sphere of justice. Truth and justice are repeatedly mentioned hand in hand as matters of divine concern. We have seen how frequently the same gods as are appealed to in oaths or ordeals are described as judges of human conduct.[24] “En Égypte,” says M. Amélineau, “la vérité et la justice n’avaient qu’un seul et même nom, Mât, qui veut aussi bien dire vérité que justice, et justice que vérité.”[25] Zeus presided over assemblies and trials;[26] according to a law of Solon, the judges of Athens had to swear by him.[27] And the Erinyes, the personifications of oaths and curses, are sometimes represented by poets and philosophers as guardians of right in general.[28]
[16] Supra, [i. 378 sq.]
[17] Supra, [i. 379 sqq.]
[18] Supra, [ii. 59 sqq.]
[19] Supra, [i. 561 sqq.]
[20] Supra, [i. 578 sqq.]
[21] Supra, [i. 621 sqq.]
[22] Supra, [ii. 114 sqq.]
[23] Leist, Græco-italische Rechtsgeschichte, p. 228.