REGARD FOR OTHER PERSONS’ HAPPINESS IN GENERAL— GRATITUDE—PATRIOTISM AND COSMOPOLITANISM
IN previous chapters we have dealt with moral ideas concerning various modes of conduct which have reference to other men’s welfare—to their life or bodily comfort, their liberty, property, knowledge of truth, or self-regarding pride. But the list of duties which we owe to our fellow-creatures is as yet by no means complete. Any act, forbearance, or omission, which in some way or other diminishes or increases their happiness may on that account become a subject of moral blame or praise, being apt to call forth sympathetic retributive emotions.
To do good to others is a rule which has been inculcated by all the great teachers of morality. According to Confucius, benevolence is the root of righteousness and a leading characteristic of perfect virtue.[1] In the Taouist ‘Book of Secret Blessings’ men are enjoined to be compassionate and loving, and to devote their wealth to the good of their fellow-men.[2] The moralists of ancient India teach that we should with our life, means, understanding, and speech, seek to advance the welfare of other creatures in this world; that we should do so without expecting reciprocity; and that we should enjoy the prosperity of others even though ourselves unprosperous.[3] The writers of classical antiquity repeatedly give expression to the idea that man is not born for himself alone, but should assist his fellow-men to the best of his ability.[4] In the Old Testament we meet with the injunction, “Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself”;[5] and this was declared by Christ to be of equal importance with the commandment, “Thou shalt love the Lord thy God.”[6]
[1] Lun Yü, xvii. 6. Douglas, Confucianism and Taouism, p. 108.
[2] Douglas, op. cit. p. 272 sq.
[3] Muir, Religious and Moral Sentiments rendered from Sanskrit Writers, p. 107 sq. Monier Williams, Indian Wisdom, p. 448.
[4] Schmidt, Die Ethik der alten Griechen, ii. 275 sqq.
[5] Leviticus, xix. 18.
[6] St. Matthew, xxii. 39.
To a reflecting mind it is obvious that the moral value of beneficence exclusively lies in the benevolent motive, and that there is nothing praiseworthy in promoting the happiness of others from selfish considerations. Confucius taught that self must be conquered before a man can be perfectly virtuous.[7] According to Lao-tsze, self-abnegation is the cardinal rule for both the sovereign and the people.[8] Self-denial is the chief demand of the Gospel, and is emphasised as a supreme duty by Islam.[9] Generally speaking, the merit attached to a good action is proportionate to the self-denial which it costs the agent. This follows from the nature of moral approval in its capacity of a retributive emotion, as is proved by the fact that the degree of gratitude felt towards a benefactor is in a similar way influenced by the deprivation to which he subjects himself. On the other hand, there is considerable variety of opinion, even among ourselves, as to the dictates of duty, in cases where our own interests conflict with those of our fellow-men. To Professor Sidgwick it is a moral axiom that “I ought not to prefer my own lesser good to the greater good of another.”[10] According to Hutcheson, we do not condemn those as evil who will not sacrifice their private interest to the advancement of the positive good of others, “unless the private interest be very small, and the publick good very great.”[11]