Learning was in a much more flourishing state in Cairo before the entrance of the French army than it has been in later years. It suffered severely from this invasion, not through direct oppression, but in consequence of the panic which this event occasioned and the troubles by which it was followed. Before that period, a sheykh who had studied in the Azhar, if he had only two boys, sons of a moderately rich felláh, to educate, lived in luxury: his two pupils served him, cleaned his house, prepared his food, and, though they partook of it with him, were his menial attendants at every time but that of eating: they followed him whenever he went out, carried his shoes (and often kissed them when they took them off) on his entering a mosque, and in every case treated him with the honour due to a prince. He was then distinguished by an ample dress and the large formal turban called a mukleh; and as he passed along the street, whether on foot or mounted on an ass or mule, passengers often pressed towards him to implore a short ejaculatory prayer on their behalf; and he who succeeded in obtaining this wish believed himself especially blessed: if he passed by a Frank riding, the latter was obliged to dismount; if he went to a butcher to procure some meat (for he found it best to do so, and not to send another), the butcher refused to make any charge, but kissed his hand, and received as an honour and a blessing whatever he chose to give.—The condition of a man of this profession is now so fallen that it is with difficulty he can obtain a scanty subsistence unless possessed of extraordinary talent.

The Muslim ’ulama are certainly much fettered in the pursuit of some of the paths of learning by their religion; and superstition sometimes decides a point which has been controverted for centuries. There is one singular means of settling a contention on any point of faith, science, or fact, of which I must give an instance. The following anecdote was related to me by the Imám of the late Muftee (the sheykh El-Mahdee): I wrote it in Arabic, at his dictation, and shall here translate his words. The sheykh Mohammad El-Baháee (a learned man, whom the vulgar regard as a “welee,” or especial favourite of heaven) was attending the lectures of the sheykh El-Emeer El-Kebeer (sheykh of the sect of the Málikees), when the professor read, from the Gámë’ es-Sagheer[[336]] of Es-Suyootee, this saying of the Prophet: “Verily El-Hasan and El-Hoseyn are the two lords of the youths of the people of Paradise, in Paradise;” and proceeded to remark, in his lecture, after having given a summary of the history of El-Hasan and El-Hoseyn, that, as to the common opinion of the people of Masr (or Cairo) respecting the head of El-Hoseyn, holding it to be in the famous Mesh-hed in this city (the mosque of the Hasaneyn), it was without foundation; not being established by any credible authority. “I was affected,” says Mohammad El-Baháee, “with excessive grief, by this remark; since I believed what is believed by people of integrity and of intuition, that the noble head was in this Mesh-hed; and I entertained no doubt of it: but I would not oppose the sheykh El-Emeer, on account of his high reputation and extensive knowledge. The lecture terminated, and I went away, weeping; and when night overshaded the earth, I rose upon my feet, praying and humbly supplicating my Lord, and betaking myself to His most noble apostle (God favour and preserve him!), begging that I might see him in my sleep, and that he would inform me in my sleep of the truth of the matter concerning the place of the noble head. And I dreamed that I was walking on the way to visit the celebrated Mesh-hed El-Hoseynee in Masr, and that I approached the kubbeh,[[337]] and saw in it a spreading light, which filled it: and I entered its door, and found a shereef standing by the door; and I saluted him, and he returned my salutation, and said to me, ‘Salute the Apostle of God (God favour and preserve him!);’ and I looked towards the kibleh,[[338]] and saw the Prophet (God favour and preserve him!) sitting upon a throne, and a man standing on his right, and another man standing on his left: and I raised my voice, saying, ‘Blessing and peace be on thee, O Apostle of God!’ and I repeated this several times, weeping as I did it: and I heard the Apostle of God (God favour and preserve him!) say to me, ‘Approach, O my son! O Mohammad!’ Then the first man took me, and conducted me towards the Prophet (God favour and preserve him!) and placed me before his noble hands; and I saluted him, and he returned my salutation, and said to me, ‘God recompense thee for thy visit to the head of El-Hoseyn my son.’ I said, ‘O Apostle of God, is the head of El-Hoseyn here?’ He answered, ‘Yes, it is here.’ And I became cheerful: grief fled from me; and my heart was strengthened. Then I said, ‘O Apostle of God, I will relate to thee what my sheykh and my preceptor El-Emeer hath affirmed in his lecture:’ and I repeated to him the words of the sheykh: and he (God favour and preserve him!) looked down, and then raised his head, and said, ‘The copyists are excused.’ I awoke from my sleep joyful and happy: but I found that much remained of the night; and I became impatient of its length; longing for the morn to shine, that I might go to the sheykh, and relate to him the dream, in the hope that he might believe me. When the morn arose, I prayed, and went to the house of the sheykh; but found the door shut. I knocked it violently; and the porter came in alarm, asking, ‘Who is that?’ but when he knew me, for he had known my abode from the sheykh, he opened the door to me: if it had been another person, he would have beaten him. I entered the court of the house, and began to call out, ‘My Master! My Master!’ The sheykh awoke, and asked, ‘Who is that?’ I answered, ‘It is I, thy pupil, Mohammad El-Baháee!’ The sheykh was in wonder at my coming at this time, and exclaimed, ‘God’s perfection! What is this? What is the news?’ thinking that some great event had happened among the people. He then said to me, ‘Wait while I pray.’ I did not sit down until the sheykh came down to the hall; when he said to me, ‘Come up:’ and I went up, and neither saluted him, nor kissed his hand, from the effect of the dream which I had seen; but said, ‘The head of El-Hoseyn is in this well-known mesh-hed in Masr: there is no doubt of it.’ The sheykh said, ‘What proof have you of that? If it be a true record, adduce it.’ I said, ‘From a book, I have none.’ The sheykh said, ‘Hast thou seen a vision?’ I replied, ‘Yes;’ and I related it to him; and informed him that the Apostle of God (God favour and preserve him!) had acquainted me that the man who was standing by the door was ’Alee the son of Aboo-Tálib, and that he who was on the right of the Prophet, by the throne, was Aboo-Bekr, and that he on his left was ’Omar the son of El-Khattáb; and that they had come to visit the head of the Imám El-Hoseyn. The sheykh rose, and took me by the hand, and said, ‘Let us go and visit the Mesh-hed El-Hoseynee;’ and when he entered the kubbeh, he said, ‘Peace be on thee, O son of the daughter of the Apostle of God! I believe that the noble head is here, by reason of the vision which this person has seen; for the vision of the Prophet is true; since He hath said, “Whoso seeth Me in his sleep seeth Me truly; for Satan cannot assume the similitude of My form.”’ Then the sheykh said to me, ‘Thou hast believed, and I have believed: for these lights are not illusive.’”—The above-quoted tradition of the Prophet has often occasioned other points of dispute to be settled in the same manner, by a dream; and when the dreamer is a person of reputation, no one ventures to contend against him.

The remark made at the commencement of this chapter implies that there are, in the present day, many learned men in the metropolis of Egypt; and there are some also in other towns of this country. One of the most celebrated of the modern ’Ulama of Cairo is the sheykh Hasan El-’Attár, who is the present sheykh of the Azhar. In theology and jurisprudence, he is not so deeply versed as some of his contemporaries, particularly the sheykh El-Kuweysinee, whom I have before mentioned; but he is eminently accomplished in polite literature. He is the author of an “Insha,” or an excellent collection of Arabic letters, on various subjects, which are intended as models of epistolary style. This work has been printed at Boolák. In mentioning its author, I fulfil a promise which he condescended to ask of me: supposing that I should publish, in my own country, some account of the people of Cairo, he desired me to state that I was acquainted with him, and to give my opinion of his acquirements.—The sheykh Mohammad Shiháb is also deservedly celebrated as an accomplished Arabic scholar, and elegant poet. His affability and wit attract to his house, every evening, a few friends, whose pleasures, on these occasions, I sometimes participate. We are received in a small, but very comfortable room: each of us takes his own pipe; and coffee alone is presented to us: the sheykh’s conversation is the most delightful banquet that he can offer us.—There are also several other persons in Cairo who enjoy considerable reputation as philologists and poets.—The sheykh ’Abd-Er-Rahmán El-Gabartee, another modern author, and a native of Cairo, particularly deserves to be mentioned, as having written a very excellent history of the events which have taken place in Egypt since the commencement of the twelfth century of the Flight.[[339]] He died in 1825, or 1826, soon after my first arrival in Cairo. His family was of El-Gabart (also called Ez-Zeyla’), a province of Abyssinia, bordering on the ocean. The Gabartees (or natives of that country) are Muslims. They have a riwák (or apartment appropriated to such of them as wish to study) in the Azhar; and there is a similar provision for them at Mekkeh, and also at El-Medeeneh.

The works of the ancient Arab poets were but imperfectly understood (in consequence of many words contained in them having become obsolete) between two and three centuries, only, after the time of Mohammad: it must not therefore be inferred, from what has been said in the preceding paragraph, that persons able to explain the most difficult passages of the early Arab authors are now to be found in Cairo, or elsewhere. There are, however, many in Egypt who are deeply versed in Arabic Grammar, rhetoric, and polite literature; though the sciences mostly pursued in this country are theology and jurisprudence. Few of the ’ulama of Egypt are well acquainted with the history of their own nation; much less with that of other people.

The literary acquirements of those who do not belong to the classes who make literature their profession are of a very inferior kind. Many of the wealthy tradespeople are well instructed in the arts of reading and writing; but few of them devote much time to the pursuit of literature. Those who have committed to memory the whole, or considerable portions, of the Kur-án, and can recite two or three celebrated “kaseedehs” (or short poems), or introduce, now and then, an apposite quotation in conversation, are considered accomplished persons. Many of the tradesmen of Cairo can neither read nor write, or can only read; and are obliged to have recourse to a friend to write their accounts, letters, etc.: but these persons generally cast accounts, and make intricate calculations, mentally, with surprising rapidity and correctness.

It is a very prevalent notion among the Christians of Europe, that the Muslims are enemies to almost every branch of knowledge. This is an erroneous idea; but it is true that their studies, in the present age, are confined within very narrow limits. Very few of them study medicine, chemistry (for our first knowledge of which we are indebted to the Arabs), the mathematics, or astronomy. The Egyptian medical and surgical practitioners are mostly barbers, miserably ignorant of the sciences which they profess, and unskilful in their practice; partly in consequence of their being prohibited by their religion from availing themselves of the advantage of dissecting human bodies. But a number of young men, natives of Egypt, are now receiving European instruction in medicine, anatomy, surgery, and other sciences, for the service of the Government. Many of the Egyptians, in illness, neglect medical aid; placing their whole reliance on Providence or charms. Alchemy is more studied in this country than pure chemistry; and astrology, more than astronomy. The astrolabe and quadrant are almost the only astronomical instruments used in Egypt. Telescopes are rarely seen here; and the magnetic needle is seldom employed, excepting to discover the direction of Mekkeh; for which purpose, convenient little compasses (called “kibleeyehs”), showing the direction of the kibleh at various large towns in different countries, are constructed, mostly at Dimyát: many of these have a dial, which shows the time of noon, and also that of the ’asr at different places and different seasons. Those persons in Egypt who profess to have considerable knowledge of astronomy are generally blind to the true principles of the science: to say that the earth revolves round the sun, they consider absolute heresy. Pure astronomy they make chiefly subservient to their computations of the calendar.

The Muslim year consists of twelve lunar months; the names of which are pronounced by the Egyptians in the following manner:—

Each of these months retrogrades through all the different seasons of the solar year in the period of about thirty-three years and a half: consequently, they are only used for fixing the anniversaries of most religious festivals, and for the dates of historical events, letters, etc.; and not in matters relating to astronomy or the seasons. In the latter cases, the Coptic months are still in general use.

With their modern names I give the corresponding periods of our calendar:—