Another achievement of far-reaching consequences was Captain Henry Bessemer's process for manufacturing steel. He took out a patent for his invention of forcing air through liquid molten iron. Other inventions of interest were Brewster's prismatic stereoscope, Garcia's laryngoscope (a Achievements in Science and Letter mirror for examining the throat), and Drummond's light, patented by Captain Thomas Drummond. Captain Robert Le Mesurier M'Clure of the "Investigator" received the £5,000 prize for the discovery of the Northwest Passage and was knighted. Famous English books of the year were Robert Browning's "Men and Women," Charles Kingsley's "Westward Ho!" and George Henry Lewes' "Life of Goethe."
Charlotte Brontë, the novelist, died on the last day of March. She was born Death of Charlotte Brontë in 1824, the daughter of the Rev. Patrick Brontë of Haworth in Yorkshire. In June, 1854, she married her father's curate, the Rev. Archer Bell Nicholls. Under the pseudonym of Currer Bell she published several novels, in which she displayed great power in the delineation of character. The most important of these were "Shirley," "Villette" and the celebrated "Jane Eyre." At the same time her sister, Emily Jane, who published under the name of Ellis Bell, won fame by her novel "Wuthering Heights." She died six years earlier.
This year Jean-Baptiste Corot, the famous French painter of "Paysage Corot Intime," and follower and modifier of the new realistic schools under the lead of Courbet, exhibited his "Souvenir de Marcoussy," which was purchased later by Napoleon III.
Samuel Rogers, the English poet, wit and patron of art, died, on December 18, in his ninety-second year. The son of a banker, he travelled Death of Rogers extensively while a young man, and applied himself to the study of art and letters. His first published essays and poetry were an "Ode to Superstition" and "The Pleasures of Memory." The death of his father in 1793 left him in the possession of an ample fortune, and he lost no time in retiring from active business. In 1798 he published "The Epistle to a Friend" and other poems. During the early part of the Nineteenth Century, Rogers figured in the foremost rank of the literary and artistic society in London, where he went by the name of "The Banker Bard of St. James's Place." In 1812 he brought out an epic on "The Voyage of Columbus," which met with indifferent success. This was followed by "Jacqueline" and "Human Life." His last and largest publication was his descriptive poem "Italy," brought out in 1822. Rogers devoted the rest of his literary life to the publication of exquisitely illustrated editions of his "Italy" and his "Poems." Shortly after Rogers' death a collection of his witty sayings was published under the title of "Table Talk."
At the Parisian Art Exposition of this year, Horace Vernet, the celebrated Horace Vernet French battle painter, had a Salon devoted entirely to his works. The walls were covered by his immense canvases. At this time Vernet was the most successful of French artists. Born at the Louvre at the outbreak of the French Revolution, Vernet in his early career was identified with the events of that epoch. For the Duke of Orleans he painted his celebrated series of the four revolutionary battles, "Jemmapes, Hanau, Montmirail, and Valmy." In 1812 he received his first important commission from King Jerome of Westphalia, and in 1813 another from Empress Marie Louise. In 1814, Horace Vernet, with his father and Géricault, fought on the Barrière de Clichy, and for his gallant conduct there received the decoration of the Legion of Honor from the hands of Napoleon. After the Restoration, Vernet achieved a great success by his "Battle of Torlosa," which was purchased His early works for 6,000 francs for the Maison du Roi. At the Salon of 1819 Vernet contested the field with Géricault and Ingres, whose "Medusa" and "Odalisque" were the success of the season. By his popular lithographs of Napoleonic scenes, Vernet so jeopardized his interests at Court that it was thought best for him to transfer his studio from Paris to Rome. On his return from there in 1822 he painted his masterpiece, "The Defence of the Barrier of Clichy," for which Odiot paid 4,000 francs. It was presented to the Chamber of Peers, from which it was transferred subsequently to the Gallery of the Louvre. Thenceforward Vernet's pictures, the first of which had sold for a few hundred francs, commanded ever higher prices. For Avignon, his ancestral home, Horace Vernet painted "Mazeppa Pursued by Wolves," a picture which was injured by a sabre stroke in the artist's studio. After his election to the Institute, Vernet changed the style of Vernet's earnings his subjects, charging staggering prices. For a ceiling fresco in the Museum of Charles X. he received 17,910 francs; for "Phillip Augustus Before Bovines," now at Versailles, 24,775 francs; for "The Battle of Fontenoy," 30,000 francs. Still these pictures were scarcely up to the standard of the "Barrier of Clichy," and on Vernet's second removal to Rome his art seemed to decline. After many years spent in Rome and with French armies in Algiers and in the Orient, Vernet went to Russia, where he was Highest artistic honors received with great favor at the Court of the Czar. The highest financial point in his career was marked by a 50,000-franc commission for a portrait of the Russian Empress. He returned to France in good time to receive, in 1855, the greatest honors yet showered upon a French painter.
In America, Longfellow brought out his "Hiawatha" and Walt Whitman "Leaves of Grass" published "Leaves of Grass." At this period the "Know Nothing" Party had come to be a power in politics. The party had started from a New York society formed to check the influence of the Pope, for purifying the ballot and maintaining the Bible in the public schools. It was called the American American "Know Nothings" Party. Wherever the difference of opinion on the Missouri Compromise in 1854 dissolved party ties in the North, multitudes flocked to the new party. Before 1855 it had a million and a half of voters. In 1854 it all but wrecked the old organizations. In Virginia, Henry A. Wise, an old Whig, led the Democratic Party, and overthrew the new organization. At the National Convention of the new party, Southern resolutions were adopted by a vote of 80 to 59. The Northern delegates met and repudiated the anti-slavery alliance. In 1855 the party carried New York, California and Massachusetts, and the Democrats carried New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Indiana and Illinois.
The American Convention met in Philadelphia, February 22, and nominated Stirring party contest Fillmore and Donelson. On the same day a convention met at Pittsburg to effect a national organization of the Republican Party, which appointed a National Convention for the 17th of June, the anniversary of Bunker Hill. The Democratic Convention met at Cincinnati. Pierce, Douglas and Buchanan were candidates. On the seventeenth ballot Buchanan was chosen by unanimous vote with Breckenridge for Vice-President. The Republican Convention met, and in it were King, Clay, Wilson and Wilmot. Fremont was made a candidate by 359 votes against 196 for McLean. For Vice-President, Abraham Lincoln had 110 votes, but Dayton received the majority. The nominees of the American Convention were afterward withdrawn. The various nominees each represented real issues. Buchanan stood for the South, Fremont for Buchanan elected non-extension, and Fillmore for the Union. The election resulted in the choice of Buchanan, who received 1,838,169 votes, to Fremont's 1,341,000, and Fillmore's 875,000. Of the electoral votes, Buchanan received 174, Fremont 114, and Fillmore 8.
At another election in Kansas to choose members of the Territorial Legislature, armed bodies from Missouri took possession of the polls and elected a pro-slavery Legislature. Of 6,218 votes cast but 1,310 were legal. Governor Reeder set the election aside and ordered another. May 22, supplementary elections were held and the Free State men won. June 11, Governor Reeder was charged with fraud in the purchase of the Indian lands, and, on July 26, was removed. Dawson was appointed in his place, with Woodson as acting-governor. On July 2, the pro-slavery Legislature met at Pawnee, organized, expelled nine Free State members, and adjourned to the Shawnee Mission, near the Missouri State line. Thereupon the Free State men Struggle in Kansas met at Lawrence, repudiated the Shawnee Mission Legislature as spurious, and summoned a new convention at Topeka. The Convention adopted a Free State Constitution, and nominated Reeder for Congress. On October 1, the pro-slavery party elected Whitfield for Congress by more votes than the census list contained. The Free Staters declared the pro-slavery "Bleeding Kansas" Legislature to have been elected by fraud. A rival government was organized. Discord, violence, and crime prevailed for a year. "Bleeding Kansas" became an issue in American national politics.
The House resolved by 101 to 93 votes to send a special committee to Kansas to inquire into the anarchy prevailing there. The committee consisted of Howard, Sherman, and Oliver. After several weeks' investigation they returned and reported that every election in Kansas had been carried by Missourians, and the people had been prevented from exercising their rights; that the Legislature was illegal and its acts null and void; that Congress takes action Whitfield held his seat under no valid law, and Reeder had received more votes than he; that a well-devised election law was necessary, and impartial judges should be guarded by United States troops, and that the Topeka Free Soil Convention embodied the will of the majority. A bill admitting Kansas under her free constitution was defeated by 107 to 106, but was subsequently passed by 99 to 97. In the Senate the bill was defeated. Meanwhile turmoil and disorder continued in Kansas. Finally negotiations between Shannon, and the Free State leaders suspended the feud for a time.
The latest attempts to overthrow the government in Mexico, while they brought General Santa Anna once more to the head of affairs seriously imperilled his position. After the release of the United States Government from guarding the frontiers of Mexico, the Indians once more became troublesome. Predatory bands of Apaches and Comanches so ravaged the Mexican filibusters province of Cohauila that the government had to distribute arms among the inhabitants. A filibustering expedition under Major Walker of Kentucky established itself in Lower California. They proclaimed the independence of that province, so as to bring about annexation by the United States. A strong display of Mexican forces had the effect of driving them into Texas. Another filibustering expedition led by a French adventurer who called himself Count Raousset de Bouldon terrorized the north. From Guyamas this Count Bouldon shot expedition marched inland, but was defeated in the first encounter with a strong Mexican force. Raousset de Bouldon was taken captive and was shot. More serious was a military revolution in the south led by General Alvarez. In his proclamation of Ayutla, Alvarez called for a new Constitution and a Alvarez revolution new Congress, and promised such reforms as the abolition of personal taxation, of military conscription, and of the feudal system of passports. Other popular leaders like Bravo and Moreno joined the movement. In vain did Santa Anna put forth all the powers of a military dictator. The revolutionists took Monterey, and the insurrection spread throughout the country until it reached the capital. Santa Anna gathered fourteen hundred Santa Anna withdraws of his best troops and left the City of Mexico to march upon his enemies. Soon the hopelessness of his enterprise became apparent. On the way to Vera Cruz he suddenly abdicated, and embarked on August 19 for Havana. Scarcely had Santa Anna left Mexico when the country was plunged into new disorders. General Carrera, on August 15, declared for the plan of Ayutla and proclaimed himself Vice-President. Funds were raised by a forced loan from the clerical orders. Several provinces of Mexico refused to recognize Carrera. Within a month he had to abdicate. He was succeeded at first by Anarchy in Mexico General Diaz de la Vavaga, and then by Juan Alvarez, the leader of the Puros. While he tried to establish his rule, General Vidini in the north strove to wrest the States of Cohauila, Tamaulipas and Nuego Leon from Mexico, to form an independent republic under the name of Sierra Madre. Before the close of the year Alvarez likewise found his position untenable General Comonfort and resigned. General Comonfort seized the reins of power as substitute president—the thirty-sixth President within forty years, the fifth within four months. He fell heir to the serious international complication with Spain resulting from the unpaid dividends of Mexico's original debt of indemnity to that country.