In South Africa, another war over boundary questions broke out between the D'Urban in South Africa Dutch and English settlers and the Kaffirs. Sir Benjamin d'Urban advanced the frontier of Cape Colony to the Keir River. The Zulu chief, Dingaan, on the assassination of King Chaka, who had welded together a confederation of warlike tribes, succeeded to his powers. In the midst of these difficulties an advance guard of Boers, exasperated by Great Britain's abolition of the Beginning of Boer trek old Dutch moot courts or "Heemraden," and of slavery in Cape Colony, trekked across the Orange River and founded a colony of their own.
In South America, political changes rapidly followed one upon the other. Rocafuerte seized the South American disorders reins of power in Ecuador. About the same time General Rosas had himself re-elected for fifteen years as dictator of the Argentine Republic. President Santa Cruz of Bolivia made a raid into Peru, and in his absence the State of Bolivia promptly fell a prey to internal disorders. In Mexico, General Santa Anna established his rule as dictator. The affairs of Texas soon demanded his attention. On December 20, Texas Revolution of Texas declared itself independent of Mexico. Support came from the United States. The revolution began with the battle of Gonzales, in which 500 Americans took part. The Mexicans were defeated. Soon afterward Goliad and the strong citadel of Bexar, known as the Alamo, were taken and the Mexican forces dispersed.
In the meanwhile the Seminole war in Florida had assumed a serious aspect. The chief Indian leader who opposed the removal of the Seminoles west of Osceola in Florida the Mississippi was Osceola, son of a half breed squaw and an Englishman. His wife, the daughter of a slave, had been seized and returned to her mother's master. Thenceforth Osceola became an uncompromising enemy of the whites. The Indian controversy with the American Government turned on the interpretation of a pronoun in the treaty of Payne's Landing. President Treaty of Payne's Landing disputed Jackson held that the word "they" in the most important clause of the treaty relating to the compensation of the despoiled Indians referred only to the deputies who executed the document, whereas Osceola contended that it was meant to stand for all the Indians. The continued quibbling so enraged Osceola that he drove his knife into the table exclaiming: "The next treaty I will execute is with this."
American progress Among the intellectual and scientific achievements of this year in America must be reckoned Colt's invention of a revolver and the manufacture of pins. Longfellow brought out his "Outre-Mer," and Audubon published his "Birds of America." On December 16, a disastrous fire destroyed most of the New York conflagration commercial houses of New York City. In all 530 houses burned down and $18,000,000 worth of property was consumed. Chief Justice Marshall of the United States Supreme Court died during this year, eighty years of age. As a member of Congress, a Cabinet officer, and the foremost jurist of the United States, Marshall won lasting distinction. His ability as a writer Death of Justice Marshall was conspicuously displayed in his popular "Life of Washington."
In Europe, in the meanwhile, there had been some significant changes. On March 2, Emperor Francis of Austria died at the age of sixty-seven. The Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria succession of Archduke Ferdinand to the throne produced no change in the national policy. Metternich was retained at the head of affairs. Almost of more moment to Germany was the death of Karl Wilhelm von Humboldt, the diplomat, and brother to Alexander, the great German explorer and philosophic writer. Besides his services as a statesman at the time of the international conferences at Paris and Vienna, he is distinguished for his Wilhelm von Humboldt philological researches in the Basque and Kauri languages. About the same time Hans Christian Andersen, the Danish author, published his first collection of fairy tales. The book had an immediate success, and after its translation into German achieved a world-wide reputation. Various Andersen's Fairy Tales translations from the German version and from the original had large sales in England and America.
In France, too, notwithstanding political disturbances, fine arts and letters flourished. New creations appeared from the pens of Lamartine, Artistic activity in France Victor Hugo, Balzac, De Vigny and Alfred De Musset. Théophile Gautier brought out his masterpiece "Mademoiselle de Maupin." Among the musicians at Paris, Meyerbeer, Auber, Berlioz, Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, Spontini, and Schapa were at the height of their activity. Politically it was a year of disturbances for France. The opening of the State trial of last year's conspirators before the Chamber of Peers was followed by diatribes in the May riots of Paris press. The liberties of the press were further restricted. Riots again broke out in May. After all, but one man was condemned to death. Most of those who were implicated were sentenced to transportation. New laws for the repression of sedition were proposed by the Cabinet. Then it was that the first serious attempt was made on the life of Louis Philippe. Already seven projects of assassination had been discovered and frustrated, when a grand review of the National Guards, on July 28, gave an opportunity for a Fieschi's infernal machine telling stroke. At the moment when the royal procession arrived on the Boulevard Temple, an infernal machine was set off by a Corsican named Fieschi. The King was saved only by the fact that he had bent down from his horse to receive a petition when the machine was discharged. Among those that were struck down were the Dukes of Orleans and Broglie, Marshal Mortier, General Verigny, and Captain Vilate. The perpetrators of the crime Second campaign in Algiers were put to death. In French foreign affairs a renewed uprising of Arab tribes under Abd-el-Kader necessitated another military campaign in Algeria.
In Greece, King Otto, having come of age on June 1, dissolved the Bavarian regency and assumed his full royal powers at Athens. His reign, lacking though it was in national spirit or sympathies, assured to Greece an era of undisturbed peace and tranquillity.
Toward the close of the year, the American Government's attempt to remove the Seminole Indians from their hunting grounds in Florida resulted in a sanguinary Indian war. Micanopy the Seminole Sachem and Osceola were the Indian leaders. Osceola opened hostilities with a master stroke. On Seminole War December 28, he surprised General Wiley Thompson at Fort King. Thompson had wantonly laid Osceola in chains some time before. Now Osceola scalped his enemy with his own hands. On the same day, Major Dade, leading a relief expedition from Tampa Bay, was ambushed and overwhelmed near Wahoo Swamp. Only four of his men escaped death. Within forty-eight hours, on the last day of the year, General Clinch, commanding the troops in Florida, won a bloody fight on the banks of the Big Withlacoochee.