Reform of all kinds had become popular in England under the dexterous resistance of O'Connell, who held the balance in Parliament. The government British reforms was induced to bring in a corporation reform bill for Ireland. An official register of births, deaths, and marriages was conceded to the dissenters. Next came the abolition of one of the most barbarous practices of EnglishCharles Dickens and Irish law courts. Up to this time prisoners accused of felony were not allowed to be defended by counsel. At the instance of Lord Lyndhurst this was now changed. Another gain for humanity was made by the abolition of the law which required that persons convicted of murder should be executed on "Pickwick Papers" the next day but one. On the other hand a bill for the abolition of imprisonment for debt miscarried. The most potent plea against the abuses of this particular relic of barbarism in England was put forth by Charles Dickens in his "Pickwick Papers." These serial papers relating the humorous adventures of Mr. Pickwick and his body servant Sam Weller, when brought in Marryat conflict with the English laws governing breach of marital promise and debt, had an immense success in England and all English-speaking countries. Already Dickens had published a series of "Sketches of London," under the pseudonym of Boz, while working as a Parliamentary reporter for the Landor "Morning Chronicle." The success of the "Pickwick Papers" was such that he felt encouraged to emerge from his pseudonym and to devote himself entirely to literature. Other literary events of the year in England were the publication of the initial volumes of Lockhart's "Memoirs of the Life of Death of Mill Sir Walter Scott," of Captain Marryat's "Mr. Midshipman Easy," and "The Pirate and the Three Cutters," and of Landor's "Pericles and Aspasia." The first Shakespeare jubilee was celebrated at Stratford-on-Avon in the spring. A loss to English letters was the death of James Mill, the great political economist, in his sixty-third year. About this time Wheatstone Wheatstone constructed his electro-magnetic apparatus by which he could send signals over nearly four miles of wire. The Irish composer Balfe began his brilliant career as a composer of English operas with the "Siege of Rochelle," produced at Drury Lane in London. About the same time Balfe Mendelssohn brought out his "St. Paul" in Düsseldorf.

Maria Felicitá Malibran, the great contralto singer of the early part of the Nineteenth Century, died on September 23, at Manchester, in her Death of La Malibran twenty-eighth year. Taken from Paris to Naples at the age of three, she made her first appearance as a public singer in her fifth year. Two years later she studied solfeggio with Panseron. At the age of sixteen she made her début as Rosina in "Barbiere di Seville" at London. The success of her first appearance was so great that she was at once engaged for the season. Next she appeared in New York, where she was a popular favorite for two Her operatic career years, singing in Mozart's "Don Giovanni," in "Tancred," "Romeo and Juliet," and two of her father's operas. Here she married a French merchant, Malibran. After her separation from him she returned to Paris, where she was engaged as prima donna at a salary of 50,000 francs. Thereafter she sang at every season in Paris, London, Milan, Rome and Naples. For one engagement of forty nights in Naples she received 100,000 francs. Both as a singer and woman she exercised an extraordinary fascination over her contemporaries. Only a few months before her death she married the violinist De Beriot. In England she suffered a severe fall from her horse, which shattered her health. After this she literally sang herself to death. Her loss was mourned most of all in France, where her death has been commemorated by Alfred de Musset's beautiful threnody ending with the lines:

Die, then. Thy death is sweet, thy goal is won;
Alfred de Musset's lines What is called genius by men here below
Is the great cry for Love; all else is but show;
And since, soon or late, human love is undone,
It is for great hearts and great voices like thine
To die as thou didst—for Love all-divine.

Meyerbeer's "Huguenots" In France, great strides had been made in music, art and literature. Giacomo Meyerbeer, whose real name was Jacob Beer, surpassed the success of his "Robert le Diable" with his greatest opera "Les Huguenots," produced on February 20, at the Paris Opera House. The success of this masterpiece so Gounod disheartened Rossini that he resolved to write no more operas, and withdrew to Bologna. Charles François Gounod, on the other hand, now began his Chopin musical career by entering the Paris Conservatory. Frederick Chopin, the Polish composer, at this time was at the height of his vogue as the most recherché pianist of Paris. He was the favorite of a circle of friends Liszt consisting of Meyerbeer, Bellini, Berlioz, Liszt, Balzac, and Heine. It was during this year that Liszt introduced Chopin to Madame Dudevant, better known as Georges Sand, the famous French novelist. Their attachment was the Georges Sand talk of Paris. André Marie Ampère, the noted French mathematician and physicist, died during this year at sixty-one years of age. He was theDeath of Ampère inventor of the electrical unit of measure which bears his name.

Politically it was a turbulent year for France. On the question of the Thiers Prime Minister budget the Ministry was defeated in January and had to resign. The new Ministry called in went to pieces on February 22, when Guizot and De Broglie retired from the Cabinet. Thiers was placed at the helm. On June 26, another attempt to assassinate the King was made by Louis Alibaud, a former soldier of the south who had taken part in the revolution of July. The military expedition to Algeria under Marshal Clauzel and the Duke of Orleans first met with distinguished success. The French army occupied Algerian reverses Mascera. But later the unfortunate issue of an expedition against the town of Constantine caused the retirement of Marshal Clauzel as Governor-General of Algeria. Commander Changarnier at the head of a French battalion was beaten back step by step by an overwhelming body of Achmet Bey's cavalry of the desert. The question of French intervention in Spain resulted in the downfall of the Ministry of Thiers. King Louis Philippe, ever since Lord Palmerston's chilling reply to his overtures for joint intervention, was opposed to such a project. "Let us aid the Spaniards from a distance," said he, "but never let us enter the same boat with them. Once there we should have to take the helm, and God knows where that would bring us." He demanded the retirement of the French corps of observation in the Pyrenees. Thiers was utterly opposed to this: "Nothing can bring the King to intervention," said Thiers resigns he, "and nothing can make me renounce it." On September 6, the Cabinet resigned, having been in power but six months. Count Molé was charged with forming a new Ministry. A new cause of disquietude was given late in October by Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte at Fiasco of Strasburg Strasburg. On the last day of that month, Louis Napoleon, with no other support than that of Persigny and Colonel Vauterey, paraded the streets of that town and presented himself at the barracks of the 4th regiment of artillery. He was received with the cry "Vive l'Empereur." An attempt to win over the soldiers of the other barracks failed. The young prince was arrested. Ex-Queen Hortense interceded in his behalf. The attempt to regain the Napoleonic crown had been so manifest a fiasco that Louis Philippe Louis Napoleon exiled thought he could afford to be generous. Louis Napoleon was permitted to take himself off to the United States of America with an annuity of fifteen thousand francs from the royal purse. His adherents were taken before the court at Colmar and were all acquitted by the jury. A simultaneous military mutiny at Vendome was treated with like leniency. After the death of Amnesty acts ex-King Charles X., Prince Polignac and other of his Ministers who had come to grief after the revolution of 1830 were sent out of the country. A general amnesty was announced.

The arrival of Prince Louis Napoleon created little stir in the United States. The people there were in the midst of a Presidential election. President Jackson wished Vice-President Van Buren to be his successor. He therefore recommended that the Democratic nomination should be by national convention. The National Republicans had by this time generally adopted the American elections name of Whigs. They supported William H. Harrison and John McLaine of Ohio with Daniel Webster of Massachusetts. The opposition hoped to throw the Presidential election into the House, but did not succeed in doing so. A majority of Van Buren electors were chosen by 761,549 votes against 736,656 divided among the other candidates. Congress met on December 5. Arkansas and Michigan were admitted as new States of the Union. Before this Jackson's Administration had won a complete success over his opponents. The President gave his sanction to a Congressional resolution in favor of the The "Gag Law" South, that "all petitions, memorials, and resolutions relating to slavery shall be laid on the table, and no further action whatever shall be had thereon." A select committee resolved that "Congress cannot constitutionally interfere with slavery in the United States and it ought not to do so." The so-called "Gag Law" was adopted by 117 over 68 votes. About this same time Congress accepted the bequest of James Smithson, an Smithson's bequest Englishman, who left $515,169 to be expended in America "for the general diffusion of knowledge among men." After the fall of the United States Bank, a number of State banks were formed, many of which were without adequate capital. Their notes were used in large quantities for the purchase of public lands from the United States. Thereupon President Jackson issued the so-called specie circular, ordering federal agents toJackson's specie circular receive no other money but gold and silver. This caused such a demand for specie that many of these minor banks fell into difficulties. By the close of the year bank failures had become so numerous that a financial crisis was at hand.

Ex-President James Madison died this year at the ripe age of eighty-five. Death of Madison His entire career was such as to make him one of the great line of Southern Presidents of Virginian stock: Washington, Jefferson and Monroe.

The military campaign against the Seminoles was far from satisfactory. Many of the soldiers sent into Georgia and Florida succumbed to disease. They had to abandon Forts King, Dane and Micanopy, giving up a large tract to Seminole War the Indians. The Indians were defeated in battle at New Mannsville, and in the fall of the year General Call rallied them on the Withlacoochee, but could not drive them into the Wahoo Swamp. A change in commanders was once more made, and Jesup succeeded Call. With 8,000 men he entered on a winter campaign. The Indians were forced from their positions on the Withlacoochee, and were pursued toward the Everglades, and at the end of 1836 sued for peace. On December 15, the Federal Post-Office and American railroad development Patent-Office burned down. Irreparable loss was caused by the destruction of 7,000 models and 10,000 designs of new inventions. At the close of Jackson's Administration some three thousand miles of railroad had been constructed. Eight years previously, when he came into office, no railway had ever been seen in America.

1837