By the time the Hungarian Diet of 1843 was convoked, all parties united in Hungarian reform movement demanding the most important reforms, i.e. of a new electoral system, a new criminal code, trial by jury, and official recognition of the Magyar language. One of the first resolutions of the Lower Chamber was that no language but Magyar should be permitted in debate, and that all persons incapable of speaking Magyar should gradually be excluded from all public employment. Against the prohibition of Latin in the Diet, the Croatians appealed to the government. The Emperor promptly vetoed the resolution. Clash at Agram Upon the publication of the imperial rescript a popular storm broke forth in Hungary. At Agram, the capital of Croatia, the two factions fought on the streets. The Austrian Cabinet receded from its position. A compromise was accepted whereby Latin was to be permitted in the Hungarian Diet for the next six years. Of all the important schemes for reform brought before the Hungarian Diet of this year, only the language compromise became law. This was due to the fact that the members of the Lower House were bound to Kossuth's oratory vote as directed by the Provincial Assemblies, which vetoed everything affecting their local interests. To do away with this anomaly Kossuth and his followers now set themselves to bring their appeal before the country at large. Kossuth dropped the pen and became an orator.
In other parts of the world the spread of Western civilization was carried on with accustomed vigor. A French squadron seized Tahiti in the Society Algerian campaign Islands. In Algiers the war against Abd-el-Kader was kept alive by occasional raids and by buying over the less faithful of his followers. The natives were enrolled in the French army in regiments of Turcos, Zouaves and Spahis. The barbaric glamour of their oriental garb, as well as the reputation of their dashing leader, Colonel Lamorcière, attracted many "Foreign Legion" formed Frenchmen and foreign adventurers to this service. Soon there were enough men to form the famous "Foreign Legion."
In China, after the ratification of the Nanking treaty, the five treaty ports were opened to all foreigners on the same footing as to Englishmen. Chinese treaty ports opened Long before this, the Russians had already established themselves in certain parts of China. The smouldering resentment against the white men found vent in the truculent doings of the anti-foreign society of the "Green Water Lily" in Hoonan. Now trouble broke out in the Punjab. Jankoji Bao Sindia had died in February, and his widow, a girl of twelve, now ruled over the Sikhs. She outwitted her native Minister, who was supported by the British. Lord Ellenborough hastened to interfere. He ordered the British army to advance to Gwalior, under Sir Hugh Gough, in December. All Sindia British seize Sindia made common cause against the foreigner. The Sikh warriors tried to oppose the British advance in two simultaneous battles at Maharajpore and Punniar, fought on the twenty-ninth day of December. Both engagements resulted in their defeat. The Queen and her Ministers submitted to England's terms. They were deposed. The Sikh army was reduced to 6,000 men.
1844
TYLER'S scheme for the annexation of Texas to the North American Union was uppermost in American affairs from the outset of this year. After the retirement of Daniel Webster from the State Department, active efforts toward that end were begun. The Mexican Government, learning of this Texas movement, notified the United States that annexation would be regarded as a cause for war. Texas first asked for American interference, and, failing in this, came to an agreement with Great Britain. In return for England's action in securing the recognition of independence by Mexico, Texas pledged itself not to be annexed to any other country. This agreement was approved in Mexico. The Texan debt was largely owed in England, and it was the policy of Lord Aberdeen, accordingly, to encourage her independence. In February, a note by Lord Aberdeen was transmitted to the American Government, stating that Great Britain desired to see slavery abolished in Texas, as elsewhere, but disclaimed any intention unduly to force that point. This statement in itself whetted the desire of the Southern States of the Union to incorporate Texas among the slave-holding States. Calhoun, who as early as 1836 had demanded the annexation of Texas on behalf of the interests of Southern slavery, was invited to join Tyler's Cabinet as Secretary of State. The office had been rendered vacant by the calamitous Calhoun becomes Secretary of State explosion of a new monster gun on the U.S.S. "Princeton," killing Secretary of State Upshar and Secretary Gilmer of the Navy in the immediate vicinity of President Tyler. Calhoun entered office on March 6, and on April 12 the Texan treaty of annexation was signed. On April 18, Calhoun answered Lord Aberdeen's note, declaring that "the British avowal made it the imperious duty of the Federal Government to conclude in self-defence a treaty of annexation with Texas." As to this transaction, Von Holst, Calhoun's biographer, has said: "It may not be correct to apply, without modification, the code of private ethics to politics; but, however flexible political morality may be, a lie is a lie, and Calhoun knew there was not a particle of truth in these assertions." The annexation treaty was held back in the American Senate until the Democratic Convention of 1844 had declared Texan annexation rejected for the reannexation of Texas. In the hope that this would secure ratification the treaty was submitted in June, but the Senate once more rejected it by 35 to 16 votes. Undismayed by this, President Tyler within three days sent another message to the House of Representatives asking for reconsideration of the subject, but the matter went over until after the Presidential campaign in the autumn. Henry Clay's vacillating stand throughout this controversy proved fatal to his Presidential aspirations.
During this same year, the Indians surrendered the regions adjoining Lake Superior, which were promptly settled by white men. Iron was then Anti-Mormon riots discovered at Marquette and copper at Kewenaw Point. At Nauvoo, Illinois, where the Mormons had just erected a temple, their revival of patriarchal polygamy excited the wrath of the people. Riots broke out June 27. The Mormon leader, Joseph Smith, and his brother, who had been lodged in jail, Brigham Young were killed. Brigham Young thenceforth became the leader of the Mormons.
By means of a Congressional grant of $30,000, Samuel B.F. Morse constructed Morse's telegraph his first telegraph line over the forty miles between Baltimore and Washington. The first message, "What hath God wrought?" is still preserved by the Connecticut Historical Society. Before this Alfred Vail had perfected his telegraph code of alphabetical signs, with his dry point reading register and relay key. Now Ezra Cornell contributed his invention of an inverted cup of glass for insulating live wires. Dr. Horace Wells, a Wells' anæsthetic discovery dentist of Hartford, Connecticut, first employed nitrous oxide gas, popularly known as laughing gas, in extracting one of his own teeth.
In England, Faraday published his first "Experimental Researches in Electricity." The anonymous publication of "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation," containing the first enunciation of Darwin's doctrine of the origin of species by evolution, was followed by a storm of controversy. Another subject for controversy was furnished by the invention of the new tonic system in music (Do re mi fa). Kingsley brought out his "Village Sermons," while Max Müller came into prominence by his new edition and translation of "Hitopadesa," a collection of old Hindu fables. The Death of John Dalton necrology of the year in England includes John Dalton, the physicist, and Sir Francis Burdett, the parliamentarian and popular leader, who did so much for liberty of speech and of the press. John Dalton, a strangely original genius, and perhaps the greatest theoretical chemist of his generation, first came into prominence by showing that water existed in air as an independent gas. The wonderful theory of atoms, on which the whole gigantic structure of modern chemistry rests, was the logical outgrowth of the original conception of this country-bred, self-taught Quaker.
A feature of the year was the sensational trial of Daniel O'Connell and his O'Connell's trial associates on charges of sedition in Ireland. On May 30, O'Connell was sentenced to imprisonment for one year and fined £2,000. After Lord Heytesbury's advent as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland the judgment of the Irish Court of Queen's Bench against O'Connell was reversed and O'Connell and his associates were liberated. Baring's bill for a renewal of the Bank of England's charter was passed with a handsome government majority. The new Royal Exchange was opened by the Queen in October. Another measure which was speedily passed through Parliament, owing to the slight importance Government monopoly of English railways attached to it, was Gladstone's bill requiring the railroads of England to provide proper accommodations and to run cheap trains daily. The government was authorized, with the approval of Parliament, to undertake the gradual purchase of all existing railways before the year 1866. At this same time there were but fourteen miles of railroad in all British America. Minor events of importance to Englishmen were the foundation of the Young Men's Y.M.C.A. founded Christian Association by certain drygoods clerks of London, and the demolition of the notorious Fleet Prison, made immortal by the novels of Dickens.