In England, a period of great prosperity had set in, notwithstanding several great labor strikes, among them that of the London cabmen, and of many thousands of operatives at Stockport and Preston. The success of the International expositions Crystal Palace Exhibition had been such that another great Industrial Exhibition was held at Dublin. It was made the occasion of Queen Victoria's second visit to Ireland. International expositions were likewise held at Berlin and in New York.
The change of Administration in the United States of North America gave a new tone to affairs there, and incidentally brought America into closer touch with the East. Congress had counted the electoral vote on February 9, giving to Pierce 254 and 42 to Scott. Franklin Pierce was forty-nine years President Pierce inaugurated of age when he became President, and was the youngest man who had been elected to that office. During the Mexican war he had fought with credit under Scott. William L. Marcy became Secretary of State, and Guthrie, McClelland, Jefferson Davis, Dobbin, Campbell and Cushing completed the Cabinet. It was said that Pierce came into office with no bitter opposition and went out with none. In his inaugural message he spoke with doubt concerning his own powers. In truth, he proved himself the tool of different managers.
The American Government also assisted Grinnell in fitting out a second Kane's Arctic voyage expedition to the Arctic under charge of Dr. Kane, who was surgeon and naturalist of the former expedition. The ships were frozen fast on the shores of Greenland. Kane's crew, without waiting for relief, set out to return in open boats, and after a voyage of 1,300 miles reached a Danish settlement in Greenland, where a relief expedition met them. They reached New York on October 11, 1855, where they were welcomed as men risen from the dead. They brought no news concerning Sir John Franklin.
Dominique François Arago died on October 2, at the age of sixty-seven. Death of Arago Scientists remember him chiefly for his experiments and discoveries in magnetism and optics. He was one of the few men who championed Fresnel during the controversy which raged at the time when the undulatory theory of light was first announced. As a popular expounder of scientific facts, Arago had few equals. With Gay-Lussac he was the founder of "Annales de Chimie et de Physique." He was also an active politician, and was a member of the French Provisional Government of 1848.
A thriving oriental trade had sprung up, fostered partly by the development of steam navigation and partly by the discovery of gold in California. A few years previously a first attempt had been made by the United States Government to break down if possible the system of exclusion kept up by Japan. Commodore Biddle was despatched with two war vessels. His mission proved unsatisfactory, and the Commodore was subjected to humiliating experiences. Early in 1853, President Fillmore sent Commodore Perry with a squadron of four vessels to present a letter from the President of the The opening of Japan United States to the Mikado of Japan, asking consent to the negotiation of a treaty of friendship and commerce between the two governments. On July 7, Commodore Perry's squadron steamed into the harbor of Yeddo. Perry got a favorable reception after using his big guns. The President's letter was left with the Mikado for the consideration of the Japanese Government, while Perry sailed away, promising to return the following spring. In the meanwhile violent upheavals in Japan resulted from the appearance of the American mission at Yeddo. The appearance of the squadron had long been anticipated, and was the subject of violent political discussions. Japan at that time was threatened with civil war. Two parties were disputing Japanese dissensions concerning the proper successor to the worn-out Shogun, who had hitherto wielded the powers of the impotent Mikado. The head of one party was Ee Kamong No Kami, the head of the Fudai Daimios. By right he was to be appointed Regent in case of an emergency. The head of the other party was the Prince of Mito, one of the "three families," hereditary Vice-Shogun in Yeddo, and connected by marriage with the family of the Emperor and with the wealthiest Daimios. The two parties made the arrival of the American squadron a pretext for grasping at the reins of power. Letters were sent to all the Daimios and Ometkis, requesting their opinions as to the reception to be given to the Americans. The majority were for resenting any foreign interference in the affairs of Japan by force. It was agreed, however, that Preparing for intrusion open declaration of war had best be deferred until the comparatively defenceless shores of Japan could be strengthened and sea forts could be erected. Orders were sent to the Daimios to muster the full strength of their retainers and munitions of war, for "if Japan does not conquer, it will be a great disgrace."
In China, the Taipings, having captured Kinkiang and Gurking, closely invested Nanking. After a fortnight's siege, the city surrendered to an armed rabble. The Tartar colony of 200,000 threw themselves upon Tien Wang's mercy, but not a hundred of them escaped: "We killed them all," said Taipings capture Nanking one of the Taipings; "we left not a root to sprout from." The acquisition of Nanking, the second city in the empire, made the Taipings a formidable rival to the Manchus, and Tien Wang became a contestant with Hienfung for imperial honors. It cut off communication between north and south China. Chinkiangfoo, at the entrance of the Grand Canal, and Yangchow, on the north bank of the river, also fell into their hands. Tien Wang proclaimed Nanking, the old Ming city, his capital. At a council of war it was decided to provision and fortify Nanking, and then march against Peking. By the end of May the Taiping army numbered 80,000. They attacked Kaifong and were Peking threatened repulsed, but continued their march toward Peking. After crossing the Hoang-ho, they were again repulsed at Hwaiking. Passing on, they defeated a Manchu force in the Sin Simming Pass, and in September added the province of Pechili, and came to Tsing, twenty miles south of Tien-tsin, less than a hundred miles from Peking. The fate of the Manchu dynasty trembled in the balance. The Mongol levies at last arrived under their great chief, Sankolinsin, and the invaders retired to their fortified camp at Tsinghai and sent to Tien Wang for succor. At Tsinghai they were closely beleaguered for some time to come.
The recurrence of American filibustering expeditions to Cuba appeared to the governments of England and France as evidence of an American purpose to secure Cuba and the West Indian Islands. To avert this, they suggested to the United States Government to make a treaty which should secure Cuba to Spain. The American Government was asked "to decline now and forever American declaration as to Cuba hereafter all intention to obtain possession of the island of Cuba and to discontinue all such attempts in that direction on the part of any individual or power whatever." Secretary of State Everett replied that the question affected American and not European policy, coming not properly within the scope of the interference of European Cabinets; that the United States did not intend to violate any existing laws; that the American Government claimed the right to act regarding Cuba independently of any other power, and that it could not view with indifference the fall of Cuba into any other hands than those of Spain. This was tantamount to a reassertion of the Monroe Doctrine. France did not reply to Everett's note, and the correspondence with the British Foreign Office was scarcely more satisfactory.
A new treaty with Mexico was negotiated by Gadsden, by which the United Gadsden's Mexican treaty States secured Marrila Valley, with 44,000 square miles, on the payment of $10,000,000. This settled the Mexican boundary dispute and averted all danger of further war.
Another international complication had arisen with Austria. On June 21, Martin Koszta, a Hungarian refugee and would-be American citizen, Koszta episode travelling under a United States passport, was arrested by the Austrian consul at Smyrna. Captain Ingraham of the United States sloop-of-war "St. Louis," cruising in Turkish waters, hearing of this, put into Smyrna. In accordance with the recent treaty governing Austrian refugees in Turkey, he demanded the surrender of Koszta within eight hours. If the man were not surrendered he threatened to land marines and take him by force. It was finally agreed to leave Koszta in the hands of the French consul, who presently released him. Austria issued a circular note to the courts of Europe protesting against the conduct of Captain Ingraham, and followed this up with a formal protest to the government of the United States. The reply of the American Congress was to vote a medal for Captain Ingraham. There the incident closed.
Other affairs absorbed the interest of Austria's Foreign Minister. A treaty was signed with Prussia establishing a virtual defensive and offensive alliance. At the same time Austria joined the German Zollverein for twelve years. When the Montenegrins rose against their Turkish oppressors, Austria supported their cause and demanded a redress of their grievances from Austria supports Montenegrins Turkey. After protracted negotiations this was granted. The wrongs of the Montenegrins and other Christian subjects of Turkey were warmly espoused by Russia. Czar Nicholas, as the pontiff of the Russian-Greek Church, claimed a protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey. The pending difficulties concerning the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem became part of the Russia threatens Turkey controversy. On the pretext of legalizing the predominant position of the Greek Church as one of the guardians of the Holy Sepulchre, the Czar assumed a threatening attitude toward Turkey. For a while Lord Stratford Canning, the British Ambassador at Constantinople, succeeded in mediating between Russia and France. A temporary agreement was effected. At this point the appearance of a French fleet in Turkish waters gave great offence to Russia, making it appear that the concessions to France had been extorted by a menace. Already Sir Hamilton Seymour, the British Ambassador at St. Petersburg, had been sounded by the Czar. It was on that occasion that Nicholas uttered the historic phrase that "the sick man was dying," meaning the Ottoman Empire. It was then, too, that tentative offers were made to England to let her take Egypt and the island of Candia, provided Russia could make herself mistress of the Balkans.