James's Account of S. H. Long's Expedition, 1819-1820, part 4

by Edwin James; Stephen H. Long; Thomas Say

In these assemblies the policy of making war or peace, and the manner in which it is to be effected, also all matters involving the interests of the nation, are first discussed. Having thus been the subject of deliberation in solemn council (for the proceedings at these feasts are conducted with the greatest solemnity,) the decision, of whatever nature it may be, is published to the people at large by certain members of the council performing the office of criers. On such occasions, the criers not only proclaim the measures that have been recommended, but explain the reasons of them, and urge the people zealously to support them. It is also the business of the criers, who are generally men of known valour and approved habits, and are able to enforce their precepts by the examples they have set, to harangue the people of their village daily, and exhort them to such a course {249} of life as is deemed praiseworthy. On such occasions, which are usually selected in the stillness of the morning or evening, the crier marches through the village, uttering his exhortation in a loud voice, and endeavouring to inculcate correct principles and sentiments. The young men and children of the village are directed how to demean themselves, in order to become useful and enjoy the esteem of good men, and the favour of the good spirit. In this way they are incited to wage war or sue for peace; and to practise according to their ideas of morality and virtue; and may be swayed to almost any purpose that their elders, for such are their men of medicine (or as the term imports, magic wisdom), think proper to execute. They appear to have no laws, except such as grow out of habitual usages, or such as are sanctioned by common consent. The executive of their government seems to be vested in the chiefs and warriors; while the grand council of the nation is composed of the medicine council above mentioned, at which the principal chief presides. In all their acts of devotion, as also on all occasions where their confidence is to be won, or their friendship to be plighted, the smoking of tobacco seems to be invariably regarded as an inviolable token of sincerity. They believe in the existence of a Supreme Being, whom they denominate "Master of Life" or "Good Spirit," but of his attributes their ideas are vague and confused. They are generally in the habit of offering in sacrifice a portion of the game first taken on a hunting expedition, a part of the first products of the field, and often a small portion of the food provided for their refreshment. In smoking, they generally direct the first puff upward, and the second downward to the earth, or the first to the rising and the second to the setting sun; after which they inhale the smoke into their lungs, and puff it out through the nostrils for their own refreshment.

{250} They have some indistinct notions of the immortality of the soul, but appear to know no distinction of Heaven or Hell, Elysium or Tartarus, as the abode of departed spirits.

The arts of civilized life, instead of exciting their emulation, are generally viewed by the Indians as objects unworthy of their attention. This results, as a natural consequence, from their habits of indolence. They are aware that much labour is requisite in the prosecution of them, and being accustomed from their infancy to look upon manual labour of every description as a drudgery that pertains exclusively to the female part of their community, they think it degrading to the character of men to be employed in them. Hunting, horsemanship, and warfare are the only avocations in which their ambition or sense of honour prompts them to engage.

Their reluctance to forgive an injury is proverbial. "Injuries are revenged by the injured; and blood for blood is always demanded, if the deceased has friends who dare to retaliate upon the destroyer." Instances have occurred where their revenge has become hereditary, and quarrels have been settled long after the parties immediately concerned have become extinct.

Much has been published in relation to the high antiquity of Indian tradition, of those particularly which relate to their origin and their religion. But from the examples afforded by the several nations of Indians resident upon the Mississippi and its waters, but little proof is to be had in favour of the position. It is not doubted that the immediate objects of their worship have been held in reverence by their predecessors for a long succession of ages; but in respect to any miraculous dispensations of providence, of which they have a traditional knowledge, their ideas are at best exceedingly vague and confused; and of occurrences recorded in sacred history they appear to be entirely ignorant. The knowledge they {251} have of their ancestry is also very limited; so much so, that they can seldom trace back their pedigree more than a few generations; and then know so little of the place whence their fathers came, that they can only express their ideas upon the subject, in general terms, stating, that they came "from beyond the lakes,"—"from the rising or setting sun"—"from the north or south," &c. In some instances, where their term of residence in a place has evidently been of limited duration, they have either lost or conceal their knowledge of the country whence their ancestors came, and assert that the Master of Life created and planted their fathers on the spot where they, their posterity, now live. They have no division of time, except by years, seasons, moons, and days. Particular periods are distinguished by the growth and changes of vegetables, the migrations, incubations, &c. of birds and other animals.

Their language is of two kinds, viz. verbal and signal, or the language of signs. The former presents a few varieties, marked by radical differences, and a multiplicity of dialects peculiar to individual tribes or nations descended from the same original. The latter is a language common to most, if not all, of the western Indians, the motions or signs used to express ideas being, with some slight variations, the same amongst all of them. Nearly allied to the language of signs is a species of written language which they make use of, consisting of a few symbolical representations, and of course very limited and defective. The figures they make use of have but a faint resemblance to the object described, and are rudely imprinted upon trees, cliffs, &c. by means of paints, charcoal, and sometimes by carving with a knife or other edged tool, and are significant of some movement, achievements, or design of the Indians. A variety of figures of this description are to be seen upon the cliffs, rocks, and trees in places held sacred and frequently resorted to by the Indians, {252} but of their import little is known. Many of these symbols are made by the magicians, or men of medicine, and are probably of sacred or devotional import.

Much intrigue, cunning, and artifice are blended with the policy of the Indians, and judging from their usual practice, it is a favourite and well approved maxim with them, that "the end sanctifies the means." In an interview with strangers it appears to be their first object to ascertain their motives and the objects of their visits; and after regarding them for some time without a show of curiosity, a variety of interrogatories are proposed, in order to satisfy themselves upon these points. This they appear to do with the view also of scrutinizing into the character and disposition of their guests. In the course of the conversation they become more and more familiar and impertinent, till at length their familiarity is succeeded by contempt and insult. Thus, from the coldest reserve, they are in a short time impelled by curiosity and a propensity to abuse, where they are not in some measure compelled to respect, to the commission of outrages, even without the slightest provocation. This kind of treatment, however, is easily obviated at the commencement of an interview, by resisting every advance made by the Indians towards familiarity, and by uniformly opposing firmness and reserve to the liberties they are disposed to take.

These attributes of the Indian character manifest themselves not only in the well-known stratagems they adopt in warfare, but in the management of their domestic concerns, in which rivalships of one kind or other are created; parties are formed and pretenders arise, claiming privileges that have been withheld from them, and placing themselves at the head of factions, occasionally withdraw from the mother tribe. Thus new tribes are formed and distributed in various directions over the country, with nothing to {253} mark their genealogy, but the resemblance of their language to that of the parent stock, or of other Indians that sprung from the same origin.

The chiefs, or governors of tribes, have their rank and title by inheritance; yet in order to maintain them, and secure themselves in their pre-eminence, they are under the necessity of winning over to their interests the principal warriors and most influential men of their tribe, whose countenance and support are often essential to their continuance in authority. In conciliating the friendship of these, the chief is often compelled to admit them to participate in the authority with which he is invested, and to bestow upon them any effects of which he may be possessed. Thus it often happens that the chiefs are amongst the poorest of the Indians, having parted with their horses, clothes, trinkets, &c. to ensure the farther patronage of their adherents, or to purchase the friendship of those that are disaffected.

The situation of principal chief is very frequently usurped during the minority of the rightful successor, or wrested from an imbecile incumbent by some ambitious chief or warrior. In this case the ascendancy obtained over the nation by the usurper is gradual, and depends upon the resources of his own mind, aided by his reputation for generosity and valour.