I have only in conclusion to call the attention of the reader to one or two matters connected with the authorities which I quote. I must plead that my residence in Constantinople has not allowed me to refer to the uniform series of Byzantine authors available in the great public libraries of Western Europe. My edition of Phrantzes is that published in the Bonn series; Pachymer, Cantacuzenus, Chalcondylas, Ducas, and their contemporaries, are quoted from the Venetian edition of the Byzantine writers edited by Du Cange. My references to Archbishop Leonard are almost always to the version in the collection of Lonicerus. Dr Dethier, however, published a contemporary Italian version which has certain important variations, and to this I have occasionally referred. The editors of other authorities are mentioned in the notes to the text.
I have sometimes abstained from discussing the trustworthiness of my authorities, but have said once for all that their statements, especially in regard to the numbers they represent as engaged in battle, of victims slaughtered or captured, and the like, can rarely be regarded as satisfactory. The means of controlling them seldom exist. Even in the case of Sir John Maundeville, I have quoted him without hinting that a doubt of his very existence has been uttered. Whether he lived and was or was not a traveller, or whether his book was, as has been suggested, a kind of mediæval Murray’s Guide, does not in the least affect the statements which I have reproduced from it. The work of sifting the evidence, new and old, to ascertain its value has been long and tedious, and I must leave to other students of the same period to say whether I have succeeded in selecting what is of use and in rejecting only what is valueless. To have attempted a critical examination of every important statement which I quote would have extended my book to an inordinate length, and in regard to most of them the reader will not find much difficulty in arriving at his own conclusions as to their trustworthiness.
Edwin Pears.
Constantinople, February 1903.
CONTENTS
| CHAPTER I | ||
| PAGE | ||
The Latin empire (1204–1261) and its struggles with and final overthrow bythe Greeks of Nicaea | [1] | |
| CHAPTER II | ||
Condition of and difficulties in reconstructing the empire: difficulties arising(a) from attempts by Latins to recover the empire, (b) from CatalanGrand Company | [22] | |
| CHAPTER III | ||
The Turks: their entry into Asia Minor: not at first exclusively Mahometan:their characteristics: Othman founds a dynasty: progress of Moslemsin Europe and Asia Minor: capture of Brousa in 1326 | [52] | |
| CHAPTER IV | ||
Dynastic struggles in empire: appeals to Pope for aid; reigns of Andronicusthe Second, John Cantacuzenus, and John; repeated failure of effortsby Popes to induce Western Powers to assist in checking Moslemadvance | [65] | |
| CHAPTER V | ||
Reign of Orchan: struggles with empire; its successes and reverses; invasionsof Tartars. Reign of Murad: defeat of Serbians and Bulgariansby Turks; battle of Cossovo-Pol and assassination of Murad | [97] | |
| CHAPTER VI | ||
Reign of Manuel: encroachments of Turks; Manuel visits West, SultanBajazed summoned by Timour; friendly relations between Manuel andMahomet the First; John associated with Manuel. Siege of Constantinopleby Murad; its failure. Efforts at union; misconceptions inWest regarding Greek Church; constancy of attempts at union; negotiationsfor meeting of Council of Church. Internal struggles in LatinChurch. Emperor invited by both parties; accepts Pope’s invitation;meeting of Council at Ferrara and Florence; union accomplished; Johnreturns to capital; divisions in Greek Church | [109] | |
| CHAPTER VII | ||
Progress of Turks between 1391 and 1425: Sultan Bajazed’s reign: conquestsin Europe: Bulgarian kingdom ended: Western armies defeatedat Nicopolis: Anatolia-Hissar built: capital threatened: summons byTimour to Bajazed: Timour’s progress: reply of Bajazed: battle ofAngora and crushing defeat of Turks: further progress of Timour:death of Bajazed, 1403: alarm in Western Europe: departure ofTimour: struggle between the sons of Bajazed: ultimate success ofMahomet: his good understanding with Manuel: death of Mahomet,1420: accession of Murad: war with empire: siege of Constantinople,1422: death of Manuel, 1425: triumphal progress of Murad: he besiegesand takes Salonica: besieges Belgrade but fails: combined movementunder Hunyadi against Murad: battle of Slivnitza, 1443, and defeat ofTurks: Murad sues for peace: treaty made with Ladislaus: violated byChristians: battle of Varna, 1444: Murad ravages Morea: Iskender Bey,his origin: captures Croia: Hunyadi again attacks Murad: defeated atCossovo-pol, 1448: reasons for failure of Christian attempts: John hasto forego joining Western combination against Turks: death of Murad,1451: Mahomet the Second becomes Sultan | [131] | |
| CHAPTER VIII | ||
Causes leading to decay of empire: not due to demoralisation of Court;internal and external causes; Latin conquest and form of governmenthad produced internal dissensions and checked assimilation of hostileraces; method of Turkish conquest and its fatal consequences; ravagesof black death; population of capital in 1453; its commerce; relationsof people with government; resemblance to Russia; difficulty of obtainingidea of domestic life | [180] | |
| CHAPTER IX | ||
Accession of Constantine Dragases; Patriarch Gregory deposed; renewedattempt to obtain aid from the West; emperor meets with little success;arrival of Cardinal Isidore; reconciliation service December 12, 1452, inHagia Sophia; dissensions regarding it | [201] | |
| CHAPTER X | ||
Character of Mahomet the Second; receives deputation from city; returnsto Adrianople from Asia Minor; his reforms; builds Roumelia-Hissar;rejects overtures from emperor; castle completed, August 1452; wardeclared; Mahomet returns to Adrianople; he discloses his designs forsiege of city. Constantine’s preparations for defence; arrival of sixVenetian ships; aid requested from Venice; Justiniani arrives, January1453; boom across harbour placed in position. Turkish army, estimateof; notice of Janissaries; mobility of army; religious spirit of; castingof great cannon; Turkish fleet arrives in Bosporus; description ofvessels composing it. Mahomet’s army marches to city; offer of peace | [206] | |
| CHAPTER XI | ||
Topography of Constantinople; disposition of Mahomet’s forces andcannon; estimate of fighting men under emperor; Venetians andGenoese: disparity in numbers: arms and equipment: attacks onTherapia and Prinkipo | [237] | |
| CHAPTER XII | ||
| THE SIEGE | ||
Investment by Turks; first assault fails; attempt to force boom; attemptto capture ships bringing aid; gallant fight and defeat of Turkish fleet;Turkish admiral degraded; transport of Turkish ships across Pera intothe Golden Horn | [254] | |
| CHAPTER XIII | ||
Constantine alleged to have sued for peace; attempt to destroy Turkishships in the Golden Horn; postponed; made and fails; murder of captives;reprisals; operations in Lycus valley; bridge built over GoldenHorn; sending to seek Venetian fleet; proposal that emperor shouldleave city; attacks on boom; jealousy between Venetians and Genoese;new assaults fail both at walls and boom; attempts to undermine walls;construction of a turret; destroyed by besieged; failure of vessel sentto find Venetian fleet; unlucky omens | [277] | |
| CHAPTER XIV | ||
Dissensions in city: between Greeks themselves; between Greeks andItalians; between Genoese and Venetians; charge of treachery againstGenoese examined; failure of Serbia and Hungary to render aid; preparationsfor a general assault; damages done to the landward walls;construction of stockade | [300] | |
| CHAPTER XV | ||
Last days of empire: sultan again hesitates; message inviting surrender;Turkish council called; decides against raising siege; proclamationgranting three days’ plunder; sultan’s final preparations; his addressto the pashas and last orders to generals. Preparations in city: religiousprocessions: Constantine’s address to leaders and to Venetians andGenoese; last Christian service in St. Sophia: defenders take up theirfinal stations at walls, and close gates behind them: emperor’s lastinspection of his forces | [313] | |
| CHAPTER XVI | ||
General assault: commenced by Bashi-Bazouks; they are defeated; Anatoliansattack—are also driven back; attacks in other places fail;Janissaries attack; Kerkoporta incident; Justiniani wounded andretires; emperor’s alarm; stockade captured; death of Constantine:his character; capture of Constantinople | [334] | |
| CHAPTER XVII | ||
Attacks in other parts of the city: by Zagan and Caraja; by fleet; thebrothers Bocchiardi hold their own; panic when entry of Turks becameknown; incident of Saint Theodosia’s church; massacre and subsequentpillage; crowd in Saint Sophia captured; horrors of sack;numbers killed or captured; endeavours to escape from city; panic inGalata; Mahomet’s entry; Saint Sophia becomes a mosque; fate ofleading prisoners: attempts to repeople capital | [358] | |
| CHAPTER XVIII | ||
Capture of Constantinople a surprise to Europe; conquest of Trebizond;summary of its history. Character and conduct of Mahomet: as conqueror;he increases Turkish fleet; as administrator; as legislator;his recklessness of human life; as student; was he a religious fanatic?summary | [386] | |
| CHAPTER XIX | ||
Dispersion of Greek scholars, and their influence upon revival of learning;Greek a bond of union among peoples of empire; disappearance ofbooks after Latin conquest; departure of scholars to Italy begins after1204; their presence stimulates revival of learning; enthusiasm arousedin Italy for study of Greek; students from Constantinople everywherewelcomed; increased numbers leave after Moslem conquest; Renaissancelargely aided by Greek studies; movement passes into Northern Europe;MSS. taken from Constantinople | [399] | |
| CHAPTER XX | ||
Conclusion; the capture epoch-marking; alarm in Europe; disastrousresults; upon Christian subjects and on Eastern Churches; demoralisationof both; poverty the principal result; degradation of Churches:two great services rendered by the Churches; results on Turks: powerlessto assimilate conquered peoples or their civilisation | [414] | |
| APPENDICES | ||
| I. | Note on Romanus Gate and chief place of final assault | [429] |
| II. | Where did the sea-fight of April 20, 1453, take place? | [436] |
| III. | Note on transport of Mahomet’s ships. What was the route adopted? | [443] |
| IV. | The influence of religion on Greeks and Moslems respectively | [447] |
| INDEX | [459] | |
ILLUSTRATIONS
Approximate Restoration of the Land Walls ofTheodosius the Second between the Golden and Second Military Gates |  | Between pages [240–1] |
| Present Condition of a Portion of the LandwardWalls from photograph by M. Irenian of Constantinople. | ||
| Mahomet the Conqueror from painting by Bellini. | | Between pages [388–1] |
| Mahomet the Conqueror from medallion by Bellini in the British Museum. | ||